} ATTERN MAKIN 



J.G.HORNER. 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
PATTERN MAKING 



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t— 6 



THE PRINCIPLES OF 
PATTERN MAKING 

WRITTEN SPECIALLY FOR APPRENTICES, 
AND STUDENTS IN TECHNICAL SCHOOLS 

BY 

JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.Inst.M.E. 

AUTHOR OF " PATTERN MAKING," 

" LOCKVVOOD'S DICTIONARY OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING TERMSj*' 

" PRACTICAL IRONFOUNDING," " METAL TURNING," 

" THE AMATEUR'S WORKSHOP," " TOOTHED GEARING," ETC. 

ILLUSTRATED WITH ONE RUNDMD AMD ONE ENGRAVINGS 
AND INCLUDING A 

GLOSSARY OF THE COMMON TERMS EMPLOYED 
BOTE' IN PATTERN MAKTNC AND MOULDING 

FIFTH EDITION 



London 
Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner, E.GA 
(Incorporating Whittaker & Co.) 
Bath, Melbourne and New York 

n- 



BUREAU Of STANDARDS 

JUL 9 I92U % 

tSSiUrt No 24) * 



e 



Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman 
& Sons, Ltd., London* tl^ATji,,*'; 
MeLBQURVne;£«D Kew* &'ork •'*,* ", '< 




sa - taw J 



PREFACE. 



This volume has been written in order to enab'e 
apprentices, and the students in our technical schools 
to grasp the principles or elements of the trade 01 the 
engineers' pattern maker. The examples illustrated are 
selected, therefore, as being in the author's opinion, of 
the best and most suitable types, from the wide range 
of patterns of diversified forms made in our shops. 
Principles once grasped, details and modifications are 
relatively easy. This is the reason then, why, instead 
of describing a number of patterns at random, I have 
first laid down the principles which underlie the craft, 
and then treated my subject under the heads of moul- 
ders' joints, and constructional joints — most important 
and fundamental matters — and have then taken (Chap- 
ter V.) one good example only of a pattern which 
illustrates in an excellent manner the subject matter 
of Chapters III. and IV. Following this, I have made 
gear wheels the occasion for giving practical examples 
of the same subject matter. I have also given some 



^ 



vi PREFACE. 

attention to machine-moulded wheels, comprising in a 
brief outline a description of the parts which the 
pattern maker has to prepare. Remarks on swept-up 
work, and some miscellaneous examples of patterns 
follow, and the book concludes with a chapter on pat- 
tern turning 

The Glossary of terms embodied in the Appendix 
should prove of especial value to those who have as 
yet had no experience in the pattern shop or foundry. 

In order to produce the book at a cost which 
will place it within the reach of all, much condensa- 
tion of descriptive matter has been necessary, but 
I have made most of the illustrations almost self- 
explanatory by the introduction of suitable shading. 
I think I have therefore contrived to say as much 
about the essentials of my trade as could well be said 
in the compass of a small volume; and I offer it to 
my readers in the most perfect confidence of its accu- 
racy, and I believe and hope, utility. 

J H. 



CONTENTS. 



OBAPTEI 








PAGE 




Preface ....... 


V 




List of Illustrations ...... 


vii 


I. 


First Principles, and Materials . 






1 


II. 


Tools 






9 


III. 


Joints for Moulding 






21 


IV. 


Constructional Joints . 






35 


V. 


An Engine Cylinder 






52 


VI. 


Gear Wheels — Patterns 






67 


VII. 


Gear "Wheels — Machine Moulded 






. 79 


VIII. 


Selected Miscellaneous Examples 






95 


IX. 


Pattern Turning .... 

Glossary 

Index 






113 

125 

. 179 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



. ") Grindstones for Paring 

. ) Gouges 13 



PIG. PAGE 

1. 

2.. 

3. Long-toothed Gauge ... 18 

4. Centre Square 19 

5. Casting of a Single Bracket 22 

6. Casting of a Double Bracket 

7. Casting of a Trolly Wheel . 

8. Casting of a Trolly Wheel, 

double flanged .... 

9. Casting of a Worm Wheel . 

10. Casting of a Sheave Wheel 

11. Casting of a Bevel Wheel . 

12. Casting of a Double Armed 

Pulley ....... 28 

13. Casting of a Branch Pipe . 28 



Hli 
It. 

15. 

16. 
17. 

IS. 
11). 
20. 

21. 

22. 
2.'5. 
24. 

25. 



PAGE 

Casting of a Chimney Base 29 
Casting of a Corner Tank 

Plate 30 

Casting of a Steam Chest . 31 
Casting of a Counterbalance 

Weight ...... 32 

Casting of a Weight with Eye 33 

Casting of a Worm ... 33 

Open Joints and Boxing-up. 36 

[ Examples of Boxing-up . , 37 



Examples of Boxing-up . . 39 

Example of Lagging-up . . 40 
Example of Loose Lagging 

for Moidding 41 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



FIG. 

26. 
27- 
28. 
29. 
30. 
31. 

32. 

33. 

34. 
35. 

36. 
37. 

38. 

39. 
40. 
41. 

42. 

43. 
44. 
45. 

46. 

47. 

48. 

49. 
50. 
51. 
52. 
53. 

54. 
55. 
56. 

57. 

58. 
59. 
60. 
61. 

62. 
G3. 



PAGE 

Section of built up Core Box 43 

Example of Framed Work . 44 

Frame cut from the Solid . 44 

Halvings 45 

Pattern of Pump Standard 46 
Framing for above marked 

out 47 

Example of building up 

with Segments .... 48 

> The formation of Corners 49 

The formation of Hollows 

and Angles 50 

Dovetailed Fastening . . 50 
Cylinder — Sectional Eleva- 
tion ........ 52 

Cylinder — Sectional Plan . 53 

Cylinder — Cross Section . 54 

Cylinder — End View. . . 54 
Cylinder Pattern — Outside 

View 55 

Cylinder Pattern — Front 

View ' 56 

") Cylinder Pattern — Cross 

) Section 56 

Core Box for Cylinder and 

Guide 60 

Core Box for Steam Chest 61 
Core Box for Steam Pas- 
sage 62 

Core Box for Exhaust Pas- 
sage 63 

) Core Boxes for the Cylin- 

) der Foot G4 

> Core Boxes for Oil Cups . 66 

Method of Building up 

Segments 68 

Shooting Joints .... 69 

Peg for Segments ... 69 

Pattern for Spur Wheel . 70 
Wheel Arms, prepared for 

cutting out 71 

Attachment of Arm to Rim 72 
Rib and Hollow ... .72 

Box for working Teeth in . 74 
Glass Paper Rubber for 

Teeth 75 

Bevel Wheels 77 

Tooth Block for Spur Wheel 80 



FIG. PAGB 

64. Wheel with Arms of H 

Section 82 

65. Core Box for Wheel with 

Arms of H Section . . 83 

66. Cored up Mould of Wheel . 84 

67. Core Box for Arms of Cross 

Section 85 

68. Tooth Block for Be velWheel 86 

69. Board for striking Bed and 

Cope 87 

70. Core Box for Bevel Wheel . 89 

71. Tooth Block for Helical 

Spur 90 

72. Tooth Block for Angle 

Wheel 92 

73. Tooth Block for Worm 

Wheel 93 

74. Plated Wheel 94 

75. Core Box for Plated Wheel 94 

76. Striking Board for Loam . 97 

77. Striking Board for Loam . 98 

78. Edges of Striking Boards . 99 

79. Striking up a Loam Pattern 101 

80. Strickling 103 

81. Gauging "thickness" with 

nails 105 

If \ Sweeps 106 

84! Strickling a Pan. 1 ... 107 

85. Ornamental Column . . . 1(19 

86. Bottom Board 110 

87. A Name Plate ready for 

Lettering Ill 

88. A Name Plate Finished . 112 

89. Method of holding Turn- 

ing Gouge 114 

90. Presentation of Turning 

Chisel . 115 

91. Chisel turning Perpendi- 

cular Faces 117 

92. Side Tool 118 

93. Taper Screw Chuck . . .119 

94. Face Chuck 119 

95. Intermediate Wood Chuck. 120 

96. Chucking with Blocks . . 121 

97. Face Plate with Battens . 122 

98. Face Plate with Cross . . 123 

99. Jointing for Turning . . 123 

[JJJ- J Centre Plates 124 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



CHAPTER I. 

FIRST PRINCIPLES, AND MATERIALS. 

In so small a volume as this it is quite impossible to 
attempt much of detailed description of patterns of vari- 
ous types. I shall therefore explain and illustrate only 
fundamental principles of the trade, so that my readers 
shall be able to obtain a comprehensive and correct 
idea of the essentials of this particular craft, without 
being overburdened with details, — details which can 
only be properly gathered in the shops. I shall there- 
fore not so much seek in this volume to show how 
particular patterns are made, for I can take but a 
few out of an infinite number, but I shall deal with 
the principles that underlie the construction of all 
patterns. 

Pattern making and moulding are so intimately 
connected, that it is impossible to describe one without 
making frequent reference to the other. There is 
almost as much of pattern work learned in the foundry 
as there is in the pattern shop. This will explain the 
frequent references to foundry practice which will 

1— (5159) 1 



2 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

occur in this volume. So intimately connected in fact 
are the operations of pattern making and moulding, 
that one of the chief qualifications of a good hand is 
the ability to form a rapid and reliable judgment as to 
the best method of moulding a given pattern, out of 
perhaps several methods possible. An experienced 
man will " see through " a job at once, with an almost 
unerring instinct. But so many matters have to be 
borne in mind, that it is almost needless to say that 
this faculty can only be the result of long experience. 
Such matters as the relative difficulties, cost of mould- 
ing, the cost of cores, the soundness of faces that have 
to be machined, the strongest method of construction, 
among other lesser details, have to be considered when 
forming a decision. Pattern making being therefore 
regarded primarily from the standpoint of the moulder, 
and only secondarily from that of the wood worker, 
the following matters are of first importance. (1) 
Patterns being rammed and entirely enclosed in 
matrices of sand, due provision must be made for the 
withdrawal of those patterns. This involves taper, or 
a thinning down of certain portions ; division into sec- 
tions, or jointing ; loosening, or rapping ; and provision 
for pulling out. (2) Since metal shrinks in cooling down, 
moulds, and therefore patterns, have to be made larger 
than the cooled down castings, by the amount which 
castings shrink in cooling down from the temperature 
of molten metal. As different kinds of metals and 
alloys have different coefficients of contraction, much 
care has to be taken to allow due amounts for shrinkage 



FIRST PRINCIPLES, AND MATERIALS. 3 

in various patterns. (3) Since moulding sancl is always 
used damp, and since patterns are used roughly during 
the rapping and pulling them out of their moulds, pro- 
vision has to be made in their construction against 
distortion and fracture due to moisture and rough 
usage. This involves constructive details for diminish- 
ing the effects of moisture, for insuring the maximum 
of strength and permanence of form, and it also 
includes the selection of material most suitable for any 
given work. (4) Patterns may be entire and complete, 
.being then precisely like the castings taken from their 
moulds, or similar, except for the presence of prints, 
which represent hollow cored out spaces. Or they may 
be sectional, representing a small portion only of the 
actual mould and casting. Or instead of complete 
patterns, or sectional portions of the same, striking or 
sweeped boards may be used for sweeping up moulds 
of forms that can be suitably made from profiled 
edges. These main divisions, I think, embrace all 
examples of pattern work that can arise. (5) The 
practice of pattern work is governed by the require- 
ments of the engineer, as well as by the conditions of 
moulding and construction, and these conditions separate 
it in nearly all essentials from other wood-working 
trades. A pattern maker is an engineer, that is, he 
should be, and has little in common with carpenters, 
cabinet makers, and wood turners, notwithstanding that 
he employs many tools and performs many processes in 
common with these. Therefore, to understand the 
fundamentals of pattern work aright, we must not 



4 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

only master the principles of moulding and much, of 
its detail as well, but must remember that mere finish 
and polish can count for little in the absence of correct 
construction. From the engineer's point of view, the 
primary requisite is to make the pattern to correspond 
with the drawing given, to see that dimensions and 
centres are all correct, and to give such allowances as 
are required for turning, boring, or other machining. 
In order to do this it is necessary to understand the 
principles of orthographic projection, and, in all intri- 
cate work, drawings should be made to full size on the 
workshop drawing boards. Beyond the fact that 
pattern work is mostly done in wood, and that there- 
fore pretty much the same tools and processes are 
employed as in the practice of carpentry and wood 
turning, there is no similarity between this work and 
that of the carpenter and wood turner. A pattern 
maker must of course possess skill in the use of wood 
workers' tools, but to that skill he must add a compre- 
hensive knowledge of foundry practice, and of the 
practice of the machine and fitting shops, and further 
of the relations and functions of the several parts of 
motors and mechanisms. In short, the wider the grasp 
which a man has of general engineering practice, the 
better, the more complete he will be as a pattern maker. 
It is therefore a trade which taken in its broadest 
bearings opens up an unlimited field of interest, one in 
which a receptive man may be ever learning, one in 
which there is little repetition or monotony, one emi- 
nently suggestive and fascinating. 



FIRST PRINCIPLES, AND MATERIALS. 5 

By far the largest number of patterns are made in 
wood, a material which is very susceptible to the influ- 
ence of moisture. It might appear as though wood 
ought to be the last material employed in a sand matrix, 
which is always damp, and for a purpose where rough 
usage incidental to the ramming and rapping which 
are necessary for moulding and withdrawal is essential. 
But there are several reasons why wood is used. It is 
cheap, easily shaped or altered, is light, portable, and 
by the adoption of several precautions the evils 
incidental to its weakness and porosity may be partially 
and largely counteracted. Yellow pine is chiefly used 
for patterns because it is the only material which is at 
once cheap, readily available, and tolerably permanent 
in form. Mahogany stands rather better, and is 
stronger and more durable, but is too expensive for any 
but select and small work. Both pine and mahogany 
are straight in the grain — an important point for 
facility of working, and having less liability to warp and 
curve than crooked grained woods. Red deal is cheaper 
than yellow pine and answers well enough for the 
rougher kinds of patterns, and for core box frames, but 
it should not be employed for the best work. Spruce 
and white deal, though very cheap, should be discarded 
altogether except for very temporary and rough 
patterns, because they are harsh in grain and very 
unstable. Elm is used for foundry strickles, being a 
wood which stands the wet loam very well. For large 
strickles, but for nothing else, pitch pine also may be 
used. 



6 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

It seems almost unnecessary to say that no pre- 
caution should be spared to guard against change 
of form in patterns, due to want of seasoning. Not 
only should the material be well seasoned in board by 
stripping, but also just previous to working up into a 
pattern, as much opportunity as possible should be 
afforded to it to warp or shrink to the full extent of any 
such tendency still remaining in it. All stuff will "go " 
or become " cast " to some extent on being cut out of 
board, and therefore it is best when practicable, and 
when time will allow, to saw out and plane over all the 
stuff for a pattern or for a set of patterns, before cutting 
to final outlines and fitting together. Forethought of 
this kind will often save lapping joints and shrunk 
dimensions subsequently. 

The chief disadvantage of the use of a wood for 
some kinds of patterns — those for example which are 
much curved in outline — is the difficulty of obtaining 
straight and continuous grain ; cross grain being 
inherently weak, and liable to fracture, and to altera- 
tion in form. Then in these cases it is usual to build 
up, arranging the grain in such a fashion that one 
series of segments shall bind its fellows. Where this 
cannot be done, metal is used for patterns ; iron when 
of moderately large dimensions, brass when small. To 
obtain many forms, involving curved and ornamental 
outlines, lead, or plaster of paris, or modelling clay are 
used, being seldom moreover employed for permanent 
service, but for the temporary purpose of obtaining a 
mould from which to cast the actual pattern in iron or 



FIRST PRINCIPLES, AND MATERIALS. 7 

in brass. Iron, gun metal, white metal, lead and tin are 
variously used for such patterns. Iron and gun metal 
are employed when patterns made of timber would be 
too inherently weak to stand the rough usage of the 
foundry for any considerable time. Metal patterns are 
mostly of small size, when large they are of a very 
slender or ornamental character. In either case tempo- 
rary patterns of wood or other material have to be 
made first, double shrinkage being allowed. The metal 
patterns require a deal of filing and cleaning up before 
being fit for use, and although a roughly made pattern 
suffices from which to mould these, yet as much 
regard must be paid to accuracy in the first as is 
required in the second. Iron patterns are rusted, with 
a solution of sal-ammoniac in water, previous to being 
varnished. Without the slight roughing up of the 
filed and polished surfaces effected by rust, the varnish 
or beeswax would not be retained on the surface of the 
metal. The slight roughening favours adhesion, and 
prevents the formation of rust in quantity. Gun 
metal is usually left unvarnished, or the blacklead 
brush simply may be brushed over it. The white 
metals are sometimes used for patterns and core boxes, 
as being cheaper than gun metal. But they lack the 
rigidity of the latter, and are therefore best employed 
for those of a solid character, and for core boxes. 
Lead, and the mixtures of tin and lead, are employed 
when patterns have to be bent to outlines that could 
not be readily cut in wood, these patterns being either 
moulded from directly, or used to cast patterns from 



8 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

in the more rigid cast iron or gun metal. For special 
purposes the plastic modelling clay, plaster of paris, 
and leather are found serviceable. They have how- 
ever a very limited use in constructive engineering, 
being most valuable in ornamental work. 



CHAPTER II. 

TOOLS. 

I cannot occupy much space for the description of the 
tools used in pattern making without encroaching too 
largely upon matters of construction. Yet it seems to 
me that to say to a youth that much the same tools are 
used in this trade as in carpentry, cabinet making, and 
wood turning, is not quite what the youth, who is 
approaching the subject for the first time, would look 
for. I will therefore offer a few remarks on the essen- 
tial tools employed in pattern work, which, if I were 
writing for skilled workmen, would be superfluous. 
Those remarks will be rapid and concise, but they will 
embody the sure experience of many years. I will also 
note in brackets the average cost of each tool, the 
prices being always those for which thoroughly good 
tools can be purchased. 

Saws.- -If one large saw only is kept, the " hand 
saw " (4s.), is the most useful. Its length is 26", the 
number of teeth to the inch averages about five, and it 
is set moderately coarse, to be serviceable both for 
ripping and for cross cutting. If a second saw is 
afforded, the choice will lie between a half rip (6s.), 28" 



10 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

long, with four teeth to the inch, and a panel saw 
(3s. 9d.), 18" or 20" long, with about seven teeth to the 
inch. If the character of the work done is generally 
heavy, the half rip will be the more suitable, because 
stuff can be sawn down more rapidly with it in the 
direction of the grain than with the hand saw. If the 
work is light, the panel saw will be very useful for 
cutting ends and halvings, and doing work which the 
tenon saw would effect more slowly. A brass back 
tenon saw (4s. 6cZ.), 12" long, and a dovetail saw (3s. 9c?.), 
6" long, are required. Finer, more delicate and exact 
sawing can be done with these than with the others, 
and those with brass backs are slightly preferable to 
those with iron backs because of their greater weight. 
A keyhole saw, with " pad " or handle (2s.), a compass 
saw (Is. 6d.), and a bow Or turning saw (4s. 6^.), 12" 
long, are used for cutting sweeps and holes. For 
setting the saws, a plyer set, or preferably a setting 
hammer and block, are required, and for sharpening 
them, the three square files. I cannot stay to describe 
how these operations are performed. 

Planes. — The jack plane (5s.), 17" long, with cutting 
iron 2i" wide, is used for removing the rough outside 
from boards, and for reducing the bulk of the thickness. 
Its iron is slightly convex, say T V" in the transverse 
direction, in order to facilitate its freedom of action. 
The trying plane (6s. 6d.) } 22" long, with cutting iron 
2^-" wide, is employed for finishing surfaces, edges and 
ends to the highest degree of accuracy possible. It is 
the only plane which will produce perfect accuracy, 



TOOLS. 11 

and in order to this it is essential that its solo or face 
be kept true by occasional facing up, or " shooting," 
with another plane, that the iron be sharpened without 
any sensible convexity, that the top iron is kept screwed 
close down, or say within ^h" of the cutting edge, and 
that the bedding of the iron upon its seating, and the 
fitting of the wedge, be practically perfect. The 
smoothing 'plane (3s. 6c?.), 8" long, with a 2" or 2£" iron, 
is used for planing ends, edges, and surfaces of small 
area, where the most precise accuracy is not essential. 
It is a useful tool, because it is held easily in one hand, 
leaving the left hand free to manipulate the work. It 
is, however, of no value when very accurate work is 
required, because, being so short, its guidance is corres- 
pondingly reduced. Its iron is sharpened, and its top 
iron set in pretty much the same manner as the trying 
plane iron. The rebate plane (2.s. 6d.) is used for planing 
narrow surfaces which are set clown below the face of 
a board. Since the iron is flush with the edges of the 
plane, instead of being enclosed by wood at the sides, 
the material is removed in exact line with those edges. 
It is employed mainly for shouldering one piece of stuff 
into another, as in Figs. 21, 22, p. 37. A skew-mouthed 
plane works sweeter than one which is square in the 
mouth. These planes range from \" to 1} £ " in width. 
One of about \\" in width is the most generally service- 
able. Round planes (2s. 6d.) of various curvatures — the 
curvatures being indicated by numbers from 1 to 18 — 
are useful for planing hollows or fillets, and for mould- 
ings. Four or five of these are quite sufficient. Hollow 



12 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

planes are scarcely used, neither are any of the various 
moulding planes employed in joinery. An old woman's 
tooth (2s.) is, however, useful for letting in rapping and 
lifting plates, because it will plane the bottoms of the 
recesses at a uniform depth from the face of the stuff. 
For working large concave sweeps a compass plane, or 
plane with convex face (4s.), and with an adjustable 
stop at the front end, for the purpose of adjusting the 
sole of the plane to any curvature, is used. It is of 
about the same size as the smoothing plane. The 
spokeshave (Is.) is used for working small curves, 
rounding edges, etc. It is not an accurate tool, but 
finishes a surface cleanly, and with rapidity. Of the 
iron planes I need say nothing. All the forms I have 
named, and many others, are obtainable in iron. They 
are, however, but sparingly used in pattern shops, being 
of more value to cabinet makers and amateurs. An 
iron smoothing plane and a bull-nosed plane are, how- 
ever, very commonly found in pattern makers' kits. 

Bench Chisels and Gouges. — These are of two types, 
the " paring " and the "firmer" the first being long, the 
second short. The first are thrust to their work mostly 
by the pressure of the hand ; the mallet is used largely 
upon the latter. The upper edges of both types of 
chisels are sometimes bevelled in order to permit of their 
free entry into dovetailed grooves. The paring tools are 
quite indispensable to the pattern maker, because blocks 
have frequently to be cut to various outlines across a 
width of several inches, over which the firmer tools 
would not reach. There is more freedom of movement 



TOOLS. 



13 



possible also with these long tools than with the short 
ones, rather less stooping over the work being required. 
The short ones are, however, very valuable for roughing 
down and removing material in quantity, with the aid 
of the mallet. The paring chisels and gouges are made 
from \" in width to l\", advancing by eighths of an 
inch. Useful sizes are \' {Id.), \" (del.), »" (10d.), 
I" (Is. Id.), H" (Is. 6d.), If" (Is. 10d.). Each width of 
gouge is made in three curvatures, the flat, the middle 
flat, and the quick. Useful sizes are f" flat (Is. 4d.), 
If flat (2s. 4d.), |" middle flat (Is. U.), 1|" middle 
flat (2s.), i" quick (lid.), |" quick (Is. 2d.), f quick 
(Is. 3d.), V quick (Is. Id.), 1\" quick (2s.). 





Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

Grindstones for Paring Gouges. 

The paring gouges, being ground upon their con- 
cave curves, require properly a special stone for that 
purpose. The flatter gouges are frequently ground 
upon the edge of an ordinary stone, But it is difficult 
to form a regular facet in this way. Hence stones of 



14 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

the forms shown in Figs. 1 and 2 are employed. These 
are turned down from small blocks of broken grind- 
stone. In the first, Fig. 1, which is mounted upon a 
wooden mandrel and run between lathe centres slowly, 
there are a number of convex edges, upon which 
gouges having a wide range of curvature can bo 
ground, for flat gouges can always be ground easily 
upon edges which are quicker than their own radius. 
In this the tools are held at right angles with the axis 
of the stone. In Fig. 2 the stone is turned conically, 
and cemented upon a face plate, also run in the lathe. 
The various curvatures for grinding different gouges 
are obtained by holding the tools at the different zones 
which correspond with their curvatures, quick or flat, 
as the case may be, the axis of the tool being held in 
parallel line with the axis of the grindstone. 

. Firmer Chisels and Gouges are sold in sets of a dozen 
each, ranging from T y to 2" in width. Chisels of use- 
ful size are T y, £", T ", i", f" 1", 1\", at prices ranging 
from bd. to Is. 3d. Useful gouges are £", -§■", £", £", 1", 
iy, at prices ranging from 6d. to Is. 4ti each. 

Turning Tools. — The pattern maker has to do a good 
deal of wood turning. But. few tools are required for 
this. They consist of the gouges, chisels, side tools, 
diamond points, and the round-nosed tools. Of the 
gouges, two, or at the most three, are commonly suffici- 
ent, one 1" wide (2s. 2d.), for heavy roughing down of 
work, one ■§" wide (Is. 6d.), for commonest use, and one 
l" wide (lid.), for small and delicate work. Of the 
chisels, there may also be three of the same widths, and 



TOOLS. 15 

costing respectively Is. 2d., lOd. and 8d. The side 
tools, or diamond points, are ground right and left 
handed, and are used for finishing broad faces, both 
internal and external, against which the common 
chisels cannot be brought to operate. They are sold 
ground to these shapes, but most pattern makers use 
old files for the purpose. Coach maker's chisels 
ground to suitable angles, form excellent diamond 
points, because, being thicker than ordinary chisels, 
they are very rigid. The same remark applies to the 
round nose tool which is used for finishing turned 
hollows on bosses, the concave parts of mouldings, and 
filleted parts. Both diamond points and round nose 
tools should be kept in two or three sizes, ranging say 
from I" wide down to J-". These tools are handled 
with specially long handles shown in Fig. 89, p. 114, 
and Fig. 92, p. 118. Illustrations are given on the 
same pages for their mode of use. For roughing down 
wood for the lathe, as well as for the bench, the axe or 
hatchet (2s.) is essential. 

Boring' Tools. — First, there is the brace and bits. 
These may be bought at all prices between about 8s. 
and 32.§. An iron brace, with from eighteen to twenty 
black bits, will cost the first named sum ; an ebony 
brace, with thirty-six straw-coloured bits, will cost the 
second. Before attempting to sharpen centre and nose 
bits which have become dull by use, it is best to ask a 
practical workman how to do it, because those bits 
can be spoiled completely by error in sharpening. I 
strongly recommend the purchase of a few auger bits. 



16 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

costing on an average about Is. Gd. each. They will 
bore into any way of the grain much more cleanly, 
quickly and accurately than the common centre bits, 
and if used carefully will last for many years. Half a 
dozen assorted brad aivls, at about Is. 4:d. a dozen, 
handled, and as many gimlets, at about 2.s\ a dozen, are 
wanted. I think the shell form of gimlet is preferable 
to the twist, as being less apt to split the stuff in short 
grain. 

Hones. — The best and cheapest hone in my opinion 
is the Charnley Forest. The more costly Washita and 
Arkansas stones are sold extensively, but I prefer the 
other for bench tools. It is neither too hard nor too 
soft, it does not become scratched, and the tool "hangs" 
to it just as it should do. The same of course applies 
to gouge slips, sold at about 6d. each, therefore have 
these of Charnley Forest. 

Tools for measurement and test. Two rules are 
required, an ordinary, or standard (2s. 6d.), and a 
contraction rule (2s. Gd.). The first is employed for 
measuring castings, the second for making patterns by. 
Each of these rules may be bought in wood, and in 
steel, either two feet long, and unjointed ; or two feet 
long, " two-fold," that is with a single joint. The first 
are better for bench use, the second are more con- 
venient to put in the pocket when going out to take 
dimensions of work. The contraction rule may also be 
had doubly divided, that is, divided down one edge for 
brass contraction ; and on the other for iron. This is 
°onvenient, provided one edge is not used instead of 



TOOLS. 17 

the other by accident. It is safer to keep two separate 
rules, one for brass, the other for iron. Iron castings 
shrink, on an average, \" in 15", brass }" in 10", steel 
\" in 1' 0". But the pattern maker soon learns that 
these are only averages, and part of his skill consists in 
modifying the skrinkage allowances in different classes 
of castings, allowing more for some, less for others, as 
suggested by previous experiences. 

A scale, or scales (2s. 6d.), open divided, are essential 
for taking dimensions from drawings which are made 
smaller than the work delineated. Open divided, means 
that only the end primary divisions, that is those corres- 
ponding with the foot, are subdivided into divisions cor- 
responding with the inch ; leaving the central primary 
divisions undivided. Dimensions can be read off more 
quickly and readily with these than with fully divided 
scales. More scales will be wanted of course, but it is 
better to buy two, or even three, open divided scales, 
than one fully divided, universal scale. The most 
useful scales for pattern makers are those correspond- 
ing with |", £", 1", H", 2", 2f ', and 3" to the foot, 
respectively. These will be contained in two open 
divided scales. For dividing out work, marking 
centres, and circles, the compasses, dividers, and tram- 
mels are used. The wing compasses, from 6" to 7" 
long (2s.) are best ; spying dividers (2s.) should be 
strong, and from 4" to 5" in length. Of trammels, 
there may be two sizes, large, and small, ranging from 
(3s. to 6s.) per pair. Workmen usually make their own 
trammels. For gauging stuff to thickness, the small 

2— (5159) 



18 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



bench marking gauges, made by the workmen, are 
essential. Cutting, and mortice gauges, are not wanted, 
but a long toothed gauge (Fig. 3), also made by the 
workman, is necessary for sweeped work, and for mark- 
ing lines on faces upon different planes. Either the flat 
or the sweeped face of the gauge is used, as required, 
for flat or for sweeped work, and the marker is 
adjustable for height, being tightened by the wedge. 
The timber scribe (Qd.) is used for marking centre 




Fig. 3. Long-toothed Gauge. 

lines, end lines, and working lines generally upon 
timber, as guides for cutting and planing by. Pencil 
lines are never used for such purposes, being neither 
accurate enough, nor permanent. The straightedge, 
and winding strips are employed for testing the ac- 
curacy of stuff that is being planed. These are made 
by the workman. For testing angles the squares and 
bevels are employed. The most useful try squares for 
the pattern maker are the 12" (36'.), and the 4|" (Is. M.). 
Set squares of wood are made by the workman to 



TOOLS. 



19 



angles of 45°, and of 30° and 60°, respectively. These 
are in constant service. A sliding bevel (2s. 6d.) can 
be set to any angle by means of a protractor, and 
employed for planing edges and ends. A centre square 
(Fig. 4), made by the pattern maker, is used for finding 
centres of circular work at once, without compasses. 
It is extremely useful. Inside, and outside calipers, 
one pair of each (dd.), are in perpetual request. A 




Fig. 4. Centre Square. 

pattern maker's hammer (Is. 6d.), a mallet, made by the 
workman, two screw-drivers (Is. 6d.) and (10d.), and a 
pair of pincers (Is. 6d.), complete the kit of the pattern 
maker. 

The selection of tools given in the foreg ing list is 
an average one. Thus, a youth on going to the trade 
may begin with one fourth, or even one third less tools 
than I have named. A workman who takes a pride in 



20 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

his trade will soon accumulate double the number. 
Many tools and appliances, however, will have been 
made by himself. 

I can make no reference to the methods by which 
the tools are kept in working" order, their accuracy 
tested, and to their modes of operation. These matters 
would occupy the whole of this volume. My readers 
must learn these in their shops and schools. In such 
matters, as well as in the purchase of the first kit of 
tools, it is well to enlist the kind services of a honest 
workman, for in tools as in other goods there is some 
rubbish sold. Failing this, go to a firm whose reputa- 
tion is above suspicion. 



CHAPTER HI. 

JOINTS FOR MOULDING. 

The jointing 1 of patterns is a fundamental matter. 
It lias to be considered from two points of view ; that of 
the moulder, and that of the wood worker. The first 
named is concerned with delivery from the sand, the 
second is constructional. I will treat of the first in 
this chapter, and of the second in the chapter succeed- 
ing. 

The problem of the best methods of jointing, in order 
that patterns shall deliver from their moulds, is this : — 
When a pattern has, been rammed up, and entirely 
enclosed in sand, how is it to be withdrawn with the 
least possible damage to the mould ? In all but the 
plainest work, some jointing of the moulds is neces- 
sary to effect this, and corresponding jointing of the 
pattern. I will illustrate these points by the aid of 
common figures. 

The bracket casting (Fig. 5), is an example of a 
plain casting, moulded with the minimum of trouble. 
There is only one joint in the mould, that along the 
plane A-A, the cope or top part of the mould occupy- 
ing the position B, and the drag or bottom part is 



22 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



represented by C. The pattern is withdrawn vertically 
in the direction of the arrow. Clearly, now, the main 
condition of delivery of the pattern from the sand, is 
that the lowermost portions in C shall be a little 
smaller, a little thinner than those in the uppermost 
portion. This is the taper of patterns. I have shown 
this taper in the figure at A A, representing the foot 
of the bracket pattern, and at B B, representing a 




B8 



Fig. 5. Casting of a Single Bracket. 

cross section taken at a-a across the middle of the 
bracket. As the pattern is being lifted from the 
enclosing sand, the thinner, lowermost portions of these 
webs become disengaged from the flanking sand, and 
do not drag against, and tear it up. The amount of 
this taper depends on the size and class of work. For 
ordinary patterns, an •§■" per foot of depth may be 
considered an average amount. In the case of faced 



JOINTS AND MOULDING. 23 

portions, the taper is given wholly, or almost wholly, 
to the inner faces, as at 6, at A A. In ribs that are 
not working parts, the taper is symmetrical, as at B B, 
which is a section taken across the line a-a. There 
is a hole in the boss of the bracket. This is cored 
out, the core being placed in the impression formed 
by the print D, the position and taper of which are 
shown dotted in the figure. More taper is imparted to 
prints than to patterns. At EF are shown chipping strips. 
While there is nothing to prevent the free delivery of 
E, it is clear that F will not deliver if fastened to the 
pattern, because withdrawing the pattern with the 
strip F fastened to it, would tear up the overlying 
sand at c. This strip is therefore, wired, or skewered 
on, loosely, as shown at A A. The skewers are with- 
drawn, as soon as sufficient sand is rammed round F to 
prevent any alteration in its correct position, and on 
the withdrawal vertically of the main pattern, the strip 
is left behind, to be subsequently withdrawn in the 
direction of the horizontal arrow into the space left by 
A A, through which space it is taken out from the 
mould. This is an example of loose pieces. 

The double bracket (Fig. 6), affords an example of 
loose pieces of another type. It is a duplication of the 
bracket in Fig. 5. In a good pattern, the upper por- 
tions would be made loose or detachable from the 
lower part ; that is, the parts which come into the cope 
would be dowelled to the part which comes in the 
drag, and be lifted off with the cope sand, to be with- 
drawn afterwards, instead of the cope sand being lifted 



24 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



away from those parts. Thus, if A-A represented the 
moulder's joint, the parts above A-A would be dowelled 
to the parts below that plane. If the moulder's joint 
were carried round from B to A, as shown by the 
dotted lines, then C and D only would be dowelled, the 
foot E remaining in one piece, with the strips FG 
skewered on. If the moulder's joint were carried round 
from B to H, as shown by the fine shading, then the 
rib C only would be dowelled, and the foot E and boss 

B- 



A - 



Fig. 6. Casting of a Double Bracket. 

D remain fast. Each of these are equally common 
methods, and the moulder's choice of method is decided 
sometimes by the way in which the pattern happens 
to be made, sometimes by the kind of flask he has 
available. 

Fig. 7 is an example of a large and typical class of 
work. It is a trolly wheel, with a single flange. No 
joint is necessary in the pattern, although as a rule 
it is desirable to dowel on the boss A that comes into 
the cope. A little taper is imparted to both outside 
and inside of the rim, as shown by the prolonged 
dotted lines. The moulder's joint, between cope and 




JOINTS AND MOULDING. 25 

drag, is made along the line B-B. The print for the 



--B 



Fig. 7. Casting of a Trolly Wheel. 

central hole is shown dotted at C. In tne double 
flanged trolly wheel, Fig. 8, B-B corresponds with 
the similarly lettered joint in Fig. 7, and there is an 
additional one, C-C, between the middle part and the 
drag. The space D is therefore that occupied by the 




~ 


n 


' ' a 


-\ C \ 


, ."»-__ ft 


A---J 


k. .■ ■ 


; i ; 


6 

.--J--A 


c — C 




1 i IV- 


L_ 


1 1 





Fig. 8. Casting of a Trolly Wheel — double flanged. 

" middle part." The joint of the bottom flange in the 
pattern is made along the line A- A, so that the portion 
between C and A comes into the middle part. The 
taper of the wheel is like that in Fig. 7. 

Fig. 9 is a worm wheel, an example of a casting 
which is moulded in cope, drag and middle, and for 
which the pattern is divided along the middle plane. 
The moulder's joints are made along A-A, B-B, cor- 
responding with the extreme tooth points ; D being 
therefore the thickness of sand in the " middle," and 



26 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



the pattern is jointed along C-C. The whole of the 
teeth E E therefore come into the middle sand, and 
are withdrawn from it in the direction of the arrows. 




Fig. 9. Casting of a Worm Wheel. 

Except the middle joint C-C, there is nothing made 
loose, and the inner curves acta a of the rim afford 
abundance of taper. 

Fig. 10 is a sheave wheel. The moulder's joints are 
at A-A, and B-B, and the pattern joint at C-C. There 
are no loose parts. Such a wheel, especially when 
recessed out for the individual links, is not unfrequently 
made without a jointed pattern, and with cores. In 
such a case, the internal portions of the rim, the boss, 
and the plate are made of the correct shape of the 
casting, but a print, seen dotted and shaded at D, is 





1 1 1 


= 1 = — - 




--A 


^5: 


, 1 1 




-°i 


c — -3t 






--C 


d iT 




-. 


--B 


D -*— — 


i— 1 — h 


f 





Fig. 10. Casting of Sheave Wheel. 

substituted for the recessed rim, and a segmental core 
box is made to the section of the sixth, or eighth part 
of the rim, and to fit the print. This saves expense, if 
but one or two castings are required. 



JOINTS AND MOULDING. 



27 



Fig. 11 is a double shrouded bevel wheel. Evidently 
the sand at a and b would prevent the delivery of an 
unjointed pattern. In the pattern, therefore, the top 




Fig. 11. Casting of Bevel Wheel. 

shroud is jointed along the line c-e, and the bottom 
shroud along the line d-d. The moulder's joints are 
three in number, along A, B, C. 

Fig. 12 is a double armed pulley. The rim B is in 
one piece, and the cope joint is made along the line 
A-A. The outside of the pulley rim B is moulded 
entirely in the drag or bottom part of the mould, lifting 
therefrom through its entire depth B. But the internal 
portions of the rim, with the arms and bosses, are made 
in separate cores of green or of dried sand. There are 
three cores, 0, D, E, necessary to form these internal 
portions, jointed at the middle planes of the arms F, Gr, 
and at the top and bottom edges of the rim. The two 
sets of arms F, Gr are made separately in the pattern, 
and loosely detached from the rim B, being set in 
position by the moulder. The middle boss is also made 
in three pieces, H, J, K, pinned to the arms. Prints, 
shown dotted at L, L, carry the central core. 

Fig. 13 illustrates a branch pipe. If it were not for 
the occurrence of two branches, with flanges at A and B, 
at right angles, the pipe would be moulded in a single 



28 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



A- 



:l 






i 
o 



=N: 



CD 



.J>_ 




Fig. 12. Casting of Double Armed Pullej. 




Fig. 13 Casting of Branch Pipe. 



JOINTS AND MOULDING. 



29 



jointed mould, the joint being along the plane C-C. 
But the occurrence of the flange B necessitates another 
joint, at D-D, to leave an open space for the with- 
drawal of the flange in the direction of the arrow. Such 
a joint as this may be formed in a separate flask, but 
more frequently with a piece of loam cake. The de- 
tails of this, however, do not concern us here. The 
jointing of the flange B to its branch is usually made 
in the manner indicated at E in the figure. The 
prints for the main pipe and branches are seen dotted. 
Fig. 14 is an illustration of a cast iron base, for the 



c- 



-1 






} 





Fig. 14. Casting of Chimney Base. 

chimney of a vertical boiler. The portion A surrounds 
the uptake, and B receives the bottom of the chimney. 
The pattern is divided along the plane C-C, and the 
moulder's joint is made along this upon the outside, and 
along the shoulder D on the inside. A gland-shaped 
facing E receives the flange of the blast pipe which 
passes through the hole F. The facing E is skewered 
on the side of the pattern, and a print G carries the 
round core. 

Fig. 15 shows the section of a corner tank plate. 
The moulder's joint is at A-A. As the flanges B B> 



30 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

will not lift witli the pattern in the direction of the 
arrow, they are left loose in the bottom of the mould. 
During ramming they are retained in place with screws, 
shown at 0, which are withdrawn after the lifting of 




Fig. 15. Casting of Comer Tank Plate. 

the cope. The curved plate D is then withdrawn, and 
the flanges B are afterwards taken out separately at 
the angle in which they lie. 

Fig. 16 shows a double flanged steam chest, with 
stuffing box A, and branch B, for steam inlet. The 
joint of the cope is along the plane C-C, and the joint 
between the middle part and the drag is along the 
plane D-D. But the joints of the flanges of A and B are 
made along the plane E E, that is along the centres of 
the flanges and of their prints. So that from the edges 
a a outwards there is a sloping joint made from CC down- 
wards to the centres of the flanges. The directions of 
these curved joints are shown at b, b. It will be noticed 
that the upper halves of the branches, above the centre 
line E-E, are carried straight up to facilitate delivery. 
This is shown at F in the figure. The alternative to 
this is shown at G\ In this latter case the branch 
cannot be lifted vertically with the top part of the 
pattern, because of the sand at c c, but must be kept 



JOINTS AND MOULDING. 



31 



loose and drawn backwards. The prints for the holes 
in the stuffing box and branch are shown dotted at 
H H. Usually the top halves of the branch flanges 
are made to lift freely with the top sand. This is shown 




Fig. 16. Casting of Steam Chest. 

at J. If made fast, the sand would become torn on being 
withdrawn from them. The guide strips K K, for 
the slide valve, are skewered on loosely and withdrawn 
sideways, because the sand overlying them would pre- 
vent them from being lifted with the body of the 
pattern. 



32 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



Fig. 17 is a counterbalance weight for a lever. 
There is a rectangular hole through it. This pattern 
is withdrawn from the sand in the direction of the 
arrow, and the moulding joint is made at A-A. A 
pocket print or drop print is used to carry the core. The 
print is shown dotted, at B B. It is deeper than the 
thickness of the core, being brought up to the joint 
face A-A, and the upper part of the print impression 
is filled up, or stopped over the core. The alternative to 




Fig. 17. Casting of Counterbalance Weight. 

this would be to make the print of the same thickness 
as the core, in which case its top face would terminate 
at C-C. Then no stopping over would be requisite, 
but the cope sand would have to be jointed down to 
C-C, against the perpendicular sides of the pattern, 
which is not desirable. 

Fig. 18 is a weight with a wrought iron eye A cast 
in it. This necessitates the use of a core. The print 
is shown dotted at B, and an enlarged view of one-half 
the core box is shown at C. There the eye is seen laid 



JOINTS AND MOULDING 



33 



into a suitable recess made in the joint of the box, in 
which it is rammed up. The core being put into the 





Fig. 18. Casting of Weight with Eye. 

print impression, the projecting jagged ends of the eye 
become surrounded with molten metal and are held 
firmly. 

Fig. 19 illustrates a worm. It is also typical of 
helices of other types. The patterns are usually 
jointed along the line A A, and each half withdrawn 



kJ 




A-- 



Fig. 19. Casting of Worm. 



-A 



by a partial revolution or twist. Sometimes, however, 
the patterns are made solid, and are twisted out of the 
mould endwise, as shown by the arrow. 

3— (5159) 



U PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

These are typical illustrations .of the jointing and 
construction of patterns necessitated by the conditions 
of moulding. My next chapter will treat of construc- 
tional details regarded chiefly from the wood-worker's 
point of view. 



CHAPTER IV. 

CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 

The outlines of work in timber are subject to incessant 
alterations, by reason of dryness and moisture. Timber 
shrinks, swells, warps and curves. Moreover, it is 
strong in some directions of the grain, weak in others. 
The aim of the pattern maker should be so to construct 
patterns that they shall be capable of resisting the 
dampness of the foundry sand 1 and the heat of the 
pattern stores ; that they shall be strong enough to 
withstand the somewhat rough usage of the foundry, 
and the fair wear and tear due to often repeated 
mouldings. The principal way in which these results 
are attained is by a judicious disposition of the fibres 
of the timber. I will illustrate this in considerable 
detail. 

The simplest case that can occur is that of broad 
plated work. Large plates of rectangular and of 
circular form are invariably made with what are 
termed open joints. That is, if a plate of two, three, 
or more feet in width were wanted, it would not be 
made up by gluing narrow boards side by side, but 
they would be laid side by side with intervening open 
spaces of from ■£$" to £" in width. If the boards expana 

35 



36 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



with moisture, the width of the plate as a whole does 
not increase ; the only effect of the moisture being 
to partly close up these open spaces. If the boards 
shrink with heat, the only effect is that the spaces 
increase in width. Since broad plated work is usually 
stiffened with ribs and flanges, the fact of the joints 
being open seldom lessens the rigidity of the pattern. 
An example of open joints is shown in Fig 20 «, a, a. 




Fig. 20. Open Joints and Ooxing-up. 

This figure illustrates also the method of boxing-up 
large patterns which cannot be made of solid wood 
without being unduly heavy, and without being speci- 
ally liable to become affected by moisture and dryness. 
In this illustration there are top and bottom plates 
A A, made as before mentioned with open joints, two 
sides B B, end C, and cross bars D, the number of the 
latter depending upon the length of the pattern. They 
should be placed at from 12" to 18" apart. Two other 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 



37 



examples of rectangular boxed-up work occur in Figs. 
21 and 22. Fig. 20 illustrates broad work of several 
feet in width ; Figs. 21 and 22 work which is relatively 
narrow, or from 6" to 12" in width. In Figs. 21 and 22 
there are top and bottom A A, sides B B, end 0, and 
cross bar D. The difference in the figures is this, that 





A 
Fig. 21. 

Examples of Boxing up. 

Fig. 21 shows a better method than Fig. 22 of rebating 
the boards together. In Fig. 21, the boards B pass 
straight up from top to bottom, and A A lie within 
them. In Fig. 22 the edges of A A come out to the 
faces of B B. This is objectionable, because when A A 
swell with the moisture in the sand, they overlap B B, 
and on withdrawal of the pattern, tear the sand up, 



38 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

and produce a rough mould. The method illustrated 
in Figs. 20 and 21 is therefore the correct one. Note 
also the rebating or shouldering of A and B into each 
other in these figures, in preference to simply nailing 
flat faces upon flab edges. This rebating prevents the 
sides and top pieces from becoming rammed inwards in 
the spaces between the cross bars, which would occur 
unless the boards used in boxing up were very thick, 
which it is not the practice to make them. The boards 
are united to each other and to the cross bars either 
with nails or with screws. 

Fig. 23 is an example of boxing up applied to 
sweeped work. It is a semicircular end of an engine 
bed, but is equally applicable to any sweeped work, 
whether of regular or of irregular form. A is a plan 
view, B is a side elevation, and C a plan view with the 
top plate D removed. There are top and bottom 
plates D E ; made not in one piece of stuff each, but 
with three pieces united with half lap joints, glued 
and screwed. The timber shading will render this 
clear without further explanation. The advantage of 
making these plates in short segments, halved together, 
is that there is less short grain than as if these were 
cut out of single widths of board, and their liability to 
shrink is correspondingly diminished. For the same 
reason the inner and outer curves of the portioi? be- 
tween the plates are formed each of several short 
pieces F, G, H, J, K, L, M. The ends of these pieces 
are either abutted simply as shown, and nailed with 
skew nails, or they are abutted and tongued, or they 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 




Fig. 23. Examples of Boxing- up. 



40 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

are halved into one another. The top and bottom 
plates are screwed to these pieces, as seen in plan at A. 
Fig. 24 is an example of hollow work of another type. 
It is not, however, termed boxing up, but lagging, or 
lagging up. It is used for turned work. The figure' 
represents a section of the pattern of a pipe or column 
of any diameter over three or four inches. A-A is the 
the joint of both pattern and mould, B B are cross bars 
dowelled together. These bars are set at distances of 
from about 12" to 18" apart, dependent upon the dia- 




Fig. 24. Example of " Lagging up." 

meter of the work. The lagging strips C are jointed 
longitudinally at rf, and glued. At the same time 
they are bedded upon the flats of the cross bars B, and 
either nailed or screwed to these. In the joint face A-A 
they are abutted without glue. After this is all done, 
the two halves of the pipe or column are secured with 
centre plates Fig. 101, p. 124, and turned. The result is 
a pattern very strong, yet light, and the possible shrink- 
ages or expansions due to heat or moisture are localized 
in thin narrow strips, so that there is hardly any risk 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 41 

of the pattern losing its correct form. All standard 
patterns for pipes, columns and cylinders, over about 
4" or 6" diameter, should be lagged up in this manner. 
The number of lagging strips C will depend entirely 
on the diameter. Speaking roughly, I should say that 
for work of 6" or 8" diameter, six strips to the circle 
will be suitable ; from 8" to 12", eight strips ; from 12" 
to 18", ten strips ; from 18" to 24", twelve strips ; from 
24" to 36", about twenty strips. When cylindrical 
work is required from over 2', 6" to 3', 0" in diameter, 
patterns of wood are seldom made use of, patterns of 
loam, or loam moulds becoming more economical. 

Fig. 25 is an example which bears some resemblance 
to Fig. 24, yet the purpose of the arrangement there 




A 



Fig. 25. Example of Loose Lagging for Moulding. 

shown is different. It is an illustration of loose pieces 
arranged for moulding, and also of alternative pattern 
arrangements. It is a section of a fluted column. The 
pattern maker's and moulder's joints are both made 



42 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

along the plane A-A. Since each half pattern must be 
withdrawn in the direction of the vertical arrows, it is 
clear that the under-cut flutes will not deliver in that 
direction without tearing up the sand at the parts 
marked a. The flutes therefore are all worked in 
narrow lagging strips, and these are attached to a 
central piece of blocking B, with screws or skewers. 
This blocking is a continuous piece, not cross bars. 
After B is removed from the mould, the fluted strips 
are withdrawn separately in the direction of their 
arrows. But in the case of patterns of large diameters 
the central blocking B is liable to shrink, and cause dis- 
tortion of the column to occur. In such a case there 
are two courses open : either to lag up a central block- 
ing in the way shown in Fig. 25, C, and lay the fluted 
strips against that, or to make a light central blocking 
of cast iron as at D, with, of course, a few light cross 
bars E to stiffen it. The lagging strips can then easily 
be screwed from the inside of the blocking. 

Although I show six fluted strips to the circle in Fig. 
25, it will of course be understood that the number will 
increase with increase of diameter, as in the case of 
Fig. 24. 

Fig. 26 illustrates another kind of building up. It 
is a section of a large core box, which may be either 
straight or sweeped in plan view. The dowelled joint 
is made along the line A-A. The method in which the 
timber is glued up, before the hole is cut out, is seen by 
the dotted lines. The advantage of building up the 
box thus, is, that several pieces of thin stuff shrink less 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 



43 



than one thick piece. When any thick piece of stuff, 
even though well seasoned, is cut and opened out to 
the air, it almost invariably undergoes more alter- 
ation in form than several thin pieces would do. By 
adopting the device shown in Fig. 26, there is also a 
little economy of timber effected in the central part of 
the box, only a portion of the hole being cut away to 
waste. At B B battens are shown. These are screwed 
across the longitudinal strips C C, and prevent curving 




-A 



Fig. 26. Section of built up Core Box. 

in the direction of the width, which in boxes of this 
kind is always liable to occur, because of the difference 
in thicknesses at D and E. 

In Figs. 27-31, common constructional joints of 
another type are shown. These are termed half lap 
joints, or halvings. They are used on all thin, open 
framings for base plates, engine beds, vertical cheeks, 
side frames, etc. 

Fig. 27 represents a framing such as would be used, 
variously modified, for many purposes in pump and 
engine work. Now imagine such a frame cut from 



41 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 







Fig. 27. Example of Framed Work. 




Fig 28. Frame cut from the solid. 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 45 

solid wood, Fig. 28. It is clear that strength and per- 
manence of form must be entirely lacking in the cross 
bars AAA. Contrast this with Fig. 27. In this there 
cannot possibly be any material alteration either in 
width or length, in general or local dimensions, and 
there is the maximum of strength. The frame is 
formed of five narrow strips, A A, B, C, D. Alternative 
methods of making half lap joints are shown. The 
plain halving is shown in the case of B. B is seen also 
in perspective in Fig. 29. At C and D, Figs. 27 and 





Fig. 29. Halvings. 

29, the dovetailed form of halving is illustrated. The 
advantage of this over the simple halving is, that it ties 
the sides AA together, so that they cannot be rammed 
outwards in the direction of the arrows. Neither can 
a bar coming at the end of a frame, as D, be rammed 
outwards in the direction of the arrows. With a plain 
halving as at B, badly made, both A A and B might 
become disturbed and rammed outwards from their 
relative positions in the direction shown by the arrows. 
Still, much depends on the workmanship of the joint. 
A good half lap joint, glued and screwed, is very 



46 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

strong and permanent. Yet for standard and perma- 
nent patterns it is advisable to employ the dovetail 
form. 

In Figs. 30 and 31, further examples of half lap 
joints are seen. Fig. 30 illustrates the pattern, corn- 




Fig. 30 Pattern of Pump Standard. 

pleted, of a pump standard. Fig. 31 shows the plated 
portion only, framed together, and marked out in readi- 
ness to be cut to outline. A comparison of the two 
figures will show their relations. 

In Fig. 31 there are four main pieces A, A, B, C, 
halved together, and either pegged or screwed. The 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 



47 



pieces A A are planed to the exact width of the sides 
in Fig. 30, but B and C are cut roughly large enough 
to include the corresponding curved portions in Fig. 




Fig. 31. Framing for above marked out. 

30. Blocks D and E are glued to A A to make up 
width sufficient for the feet. The centre line F-F, 
carried vertically midway between A A ; and the base 
line Gr-G, at a right angle therewith, are the fund a- 



48 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

mental lines from which all centres and dimensions are 
taken for lining out. After the outlines of the frame 
are sawn and cut, the bearing, the feet, and the ribs, 
both straight and sweeped, are glued and nailed, or 
screwed, Fig. 30. Note how all these are put on in 
short pieces, in order to prevent very short and conse- 
quently weak grain from occurring in any part of the 
pattern. The result is a pattern of a rather flimsy type, 
constructed with the maximum of strength possible. I 
have indicated so clearly by the timber shading the dis- 
position of the separate pieces which form the pattern, 
that no further detailed description is necessary. 

Fig. 32 is an illustration of quite another type of 




Fig. 32. Example of Building up with Segments. 

construction. It is termed building' up with segments. 
Light circular and curved work is usually made in this 
fashion. A number of thin, short segments are sawn 
out, and glued in courses, one over the other, with the 
end joints alternating, or " breaking joint," being 
pegged or nailed in addition ; and when the structure 
is complete, the correct outline is imparted by turning 
or otherwise. This is an extremely strong form of con- 



CONS TR UG TIONA L JOINTS. 



49 



struct ion, and the shrinkages of the segments are 
practically nothing. 

The remaining figures illustrate the formation of 
corners, and hollows. Fig. 33 shows a method of form- 





C C 

Fig. 33. The formation of Corners. 

ing the curved corner A. Two pieces B and C, which 
are the sides of a pattern, are abutted and screwed. A 
cubical block D is glued in, and left till dry. Then the 
inner and outer curves of the corner are struck out and 
worked, forming the curved corner A. 






Fig. 34. The formation of Corners. 

Fig. 34 illustrates three methods of forming corners 
in plate patterns. The first method is to glue blocks 

4— (5159; 



50 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



in as at A ; but the grain becomes short at the ter- 
mination of the sweep, that is at a a. At B the grain 
runs vertically, and then the terminations are not 
weakened by short grain. If, however, the plate is thin, 
the grain is then so short vertically, that it is liable to 
become chipped out in its thickness ; shows there- 
fore the best way of filling in corners. The piece which 
has to form the hollow is dovetailed in and glued, and 
when dry the curve is worked out, and one part of the 





Fig. 35. The formation of Hollows and Angles. 

sweep is as strong as another. Fig. 35 shows how the 
hollows A, and angles B are put in patterns. They are 
worked in an angle board, and glued and nailed in, or 




Fig. 36. Dovetailed Fastening. 

merely nailed. Fig. 36 shows how curved parts are 
frequently fastened to straight pieces, that is with a 



CONSTRUCTIONAL JOINTS. 51 

dovetailed piece A sunk in flush and screwed to both 
pieces. 

Since pattern making is one of the most compre- 
hensive of trades, it is clear that a vast deal more must 
be omitted from any volume written upon the subject 
than can be included in it. Yet there are certain 
classes of work to which one naturally expects to find 
reference, either because they are of a fundamental or 
typical character, or because they are of very frequent 
occurrence in practice. This, therefore, is the object I 
have in view in my treatment of pattern work in this 
volume, to give the most comprehensive view of the 
trade which is possible in the limit at my disposal, a 
method which is inconsistent with too much of detail. 
I have given, therefore, in Chap. V., a very full account 
of the construction of a rather intricate engine cylinder, 
which will be a capital object lesson for the student and 
apprentice. But in the subsequent chapters I have 
treated the illustrations selected in a more general and 
briefer fashion. 



CHAPTER V. 

AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 

The engine cylinder illustrated in succeeding figures 
is an example of a rather intricate piece of pattern 
work. Before troubling about the method of making 
the pattern and core boxes we will take a good look at 




■EE t-H 

Fig. 37. Cylinder— Sectional Elevation. 

the casting. This is shown in Figs 37-40. Fig. 37 is 
a sectional elevation taken through the plane A-A in 
Fig. 38. Fig. 38 is a sectional plan taken along the 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 



53 



line B-B in Fig. 37. Fig. 39 is a cross section taken 
through the lines C-C in Figs. 37 and 38, and Fig. 40 
is a front view of Fig. 37, looked at from the direction 
of the arrow. In these figures D is the cylinder bore, 
E is the guide bored for the crosshead, F is a foot by 
means of which the cylinder is bolted to its bedplate. 
Lesser details are, G G the steam passages, H the 
exhaust ditto, J the steam chest, one half of its depth 
being contained in the cylinder casting, the other half 




Fig. 38. Cylinder— Sectional Plan. 

in the steam chest casting, — the joint being made in 
the centre of the valve rod thus, in order to afford 
facility for taking off the cover for setting the valve. 
One half the facing to match the gland of the stuffing 
box is shown at K. L, Fig. 37, is the opening for the 
steam inlet. Its sectional outline is precisely like that 
of the exhaust passage H, in Fig. 39, and it enters the 
steam chest at L, in Fig. 38. There are openings M 
cast in the sides of the guide E, and an oil cup upon it 
at N. There is also a waste oil cup at to carry the 



54 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



oil away from the end of the guide within the foot F 
to be drained away. Lugs P are used for hold-down 
bolts, by which the foot F is bolted to its bed-plate. 

The difficulties of moulding a pattern of this 
cylinder in any other way than that which I am going 
to describe are so numerous that they would be 
obvious on a little consideration. I cannot spare space 
to enumerate them, but will pass at once to the de- 



, OD--M 





Fig. 39. 
Cylinder — Cross Section. 



; y- -h-ff 

K- - -VCC 1 

Fig. 40. Cylinder — End View. 

scription of the pattern and core boxes, shown in 
succeeding figures. 

Figs. 41 to 44 illustrate the construction of the 
cylinder pattern. Fig. 41 is an outside view. Fig. 
42 is a front view, looked at from the position of the 
arrow in Fig. 41 ; Fig. 43 is a cross section in the plane 
A-A, in Fig. 41 ; and Fig. 44 is a cross section in the 
plane B-B, in Fig. 41. If we compare these figures 
with those which represent the casting, we find that 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 



55 



there are certain double reference letters that occur in 
both sets of figures. These indicate similar dimen- 
sions in casting and pattern, and are put to facilitate 
the comparison of casting and pattern by the student. 
The same letters are also rep sated in some of the core 
boxes in subsequent figures. The first thing notice- 




-M 



Fig. 41. Cylinder Pattern — Outside View. 



able in the pattern figures is that the foot F is not 
present in the pattern at all, but that a large print C, 
Figs. 41, 42, 43, formed by boxing up, is substituted 
for it. The inner and outer curves of the foot are 
therefore imparted with cores. Another point is that 
there is a belt D, not seen in the casting. This is 
" head metal " and it receives the scurf that rises to the 
top of the mould. The cylinder is therefore poured 



56 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



M 



im\ 




4 r-, fyf/j/JlNM'/JIIM 

i < v I-FP--V • 

VMMi CC >MMJ 



Fig. 42, Cylinder Pattern- 
Front View. 



Fig. 43. Cylinder Pattern— Cross 
Section A-A, Fig. 41. 



with the belt uppermost. There are also sundry core 
prints, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, corresponding in position 
with holes in the castings. Another matter is that the 
pattern is jointed and dowelled along the line M M. 

The first care is to turn the pattern of the cylinder 
body N, and of the guide 0. When of small diameter, 



M 




-M 



Fig. 44. Cylinder Pattern — Cross Section B-B, Fig. 41. 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 57 

say under 6" or 7" diameter, this is made of solid wood, 
dowelled of course, in the central longitudinal plane. 
When of larger diameter it is lagged up in the manner 
illustrated in Fig. 24, p. 40. The two halves are 
secured while being turned, in the manner described 
on p. 124. The pattern flanges P P of the cylinder are 
not in one piece with the body, because that would 
cause their edges to be very fragile. They are made 
" plank way " of the grain, and are bored to fit into 
turned recesses in the cylinder body, as shown at the 
right hand end of Fig. 41. These flanges are not 
turned, but are cut to the outline shown in Figs. 42, 
43, 44. The steam chest flange Q, Figs. 42, 43, 44, is 
fitted between P P. The blocks E, R, which form the 
metal round the steam chest and steam passages, are 
fitted between the steam chest flange Q and cylinder 
body N, and between P P at the ends. The exhaust 
and steam inlet block S is fitted around the curve 
of the cylinder body, and the elliptical flange T is 
dowelled loosely upon it, and the prints J and K 
fastened upon T. A comparison of Fig. 44 with Fig. 
39, and of Fig. 41 with Fig. 37, will render the relation 
of pattern with casting obvious. The print L is 
screwed upon the flange Q to carry the steam chest 
core. 

The print C, in Fig. 41, for the foot, is boxed up (see 
p. 36) with sides a a, ends b &, and top and bottom c c ; 
c c being rebated into a a and a «, offer a plain face 
without a joint, favourable to moulding, as explained 
on p. 37. Since the print C extends up to the joint 



58 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

M-M, one half of the guide which was turned in one 
piece with the cylinder body N is cut off at the line 
d, and that portion of the cylinder body N is attached 
to C with a dovetail, like that illustrated in Fig. 36 
p. 50. The lower half of the print F is screwed to C. 
The print H, Figs. 41-43, is dowelled upon C. Its 
length and width E E, F F, respectively correspond 
with the length and width of the recess underneath 
the foot F in Figs. 37 and 40. Two strips U U are 
skewered on to C, Figs. 41 and 42, corresponding with 
those seen in Figs. 37 and 40. Then there is the 
waste oil cup V, with its print M, Figs. 41 and 42, and 
the oil cup W on the guide, with its print G, Figs. 41 
and 42. Various small matters, as directions of grain, 
hollows, or fillets, and the taper of prints are shown 
in the pattern illustrations, and require no special 
remark. The drawings are well proportioned, and a 
good idea of the thickness of prints necessary can be 
gathered from the illustrations. Thus, the print H 
being of large area, and having to sustain its core 
without airy overhang, is thin. But the print L, being 
of smaller area, and having to carry a core that over- 
hangs into the mould, is of considerable width. The 
amount of taper given to those portions of the pattern 
which are not prints is not much. The flanges P 
being shallow are not tapered at all upon their faces, 
the foot C need not have more than tV" given to each 
of its sides ; all faces that have to be machined, as the 
bottom face of the foot C and the hinder flange P, are 
made to stand out i" farther and thicker, to allow for 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 59 

facing, and the print E of the cylinder is made A/' 
smaller in diameter than the finished bore. The 
bottom of the foot C, and the top of the flange T, 
must be parallel with the joint face M, and the face of 
the flange Q must be at right angles with it. Inaccu- 
racy in these matters will soon be. found out when the 
casting goes into the machine shop. 

The core boxes for this cylinder illustrate the fact 
that there is often more work involved in the core 
boxes for a casting than in the pattern itself. There 
are eight boxes in this case, some of them rather 
elaborate, and all demanding a very great amount of 
accuracy. For the larger the number of sections 
which form a mould the more necessary it becomes to 
adhere precisely to dimensions, because when slight 
inaccuracies are multiplied, they become in the aggre- 
gate a source of much trouble. 

Fig. 45 illustrates the core box by means of which 
the bore D of the cylinder and that of the guide E, 
Figs. 37-40, are cored out. The main portions of the 
core are connected with a narrow neck that forms 
that portion of the casting which is bored to receive 
the piston rod gland and a neck ring of brass, at the 
end of the packing farthest from the gland. Com- 
paring the core box in detail with the casting and 
pattern, we note the following correspondences : — 

The diameter A of the cylinder end of the box 
corresponds with the diameter of the print E in Fig. 
41. The diameter of the part B corresponds with that 
of the print F in Figs. 41 and 42. The length G G 



60 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



corresponds with the similar 



fcd 



o 



o 




— - — — . 



length G G over the 
prints in Fig. 41, the 
length H H with that 
over the casting, in- 
cluding head metal 
in Fig. 41, and the 
length J J with the 
finished casting Fig. 
37. Two half sections 
of the box are seen at 
the right hand, one 
taken through that 
portion of the box 
D-D which corres- 
ponds with the bore 
of the cylinder, the 
other through that, 
C-C which corres- 
ponds with the 
guide. One of the 
facings which are 
bored is seen at E, 
the recesses at F F in 
the sides of the box 
form the openings 
M M in Figs. 37 and 
40. The two halves 
of the box are alike. 
The core boxes for 
the steam chest, 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 



61 



steam passages, and exhaust passage, are illustrated 
in Figs. 46-48. They are drawn to a larger scale than 
the previous figures in order to render their details 
sufficiently distinct. Fig. 46 takes out the recess J in 
Figs. 38 and 39, and fits into the recess formed by the 
print L in Figs. 42-44. The length KK of the box 
and of its print corresponds with the length of the 



== -j- a 




Fig. 46. Core Cox for Steam Chest. 

recess K K of the steam chest in Fig. 38 ; and the 
width L L with the width L L in Fig. 39. The depth 
B of the box equals the depth of the recess in the 
steam chest, plus the thickness of the print L. The 
method of construction of such a box is clear from Fig. 
46 ; C C are sides into which ends D D are fitted by 
grooving, the ends being screwed to the sides. This 



62 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



framing is dowelled upon a bottom board E. The 
valve facing F is nailed upon E, and the prints G G 
for the steam passage cores, and H for the exhaust 
core are nailed upon F. The side facings or guides 
J J for the valve are nailed to the box sides C C. The 
timber shading is self explanatory of the arrangement 
of the several pieces of wood with which the box is 
made. 

The steam passage cores made in the box, Fig. 47, 




Fig. 47. Core Box foi Steam Passage. 

fit into the impressions made by the prints G G in 
Fig. 46. The box is made in two pieces, dowelled 
together. The facings A A afford allowance for filing 
or machining out the ports for accurate cut off of the 
steam. The piece B forms that end of the core which 
jaas to fit the curvature of the body core of the cylinder. 
The thickness or depth of the box is equal to the 
breadth of the passages. 

The exhaust core box is shown in Fig. 48. The 
corresponding section of the exhaust passage is shown 
at H, in Fig. 39. That end of the core made at A in 
this box fits into the print impression H, in Fig. 46, 
and the end made at B in the box, fits into the print 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 



m 



J. in Figs. 41 and 44. The centre E corresponds with 
the centre of the cylinder, whence the curves of the 
passage core are struck. 

I need not illustrate the box for the steam inlet core. 
The passage has the same curvature, and almost the 
same section throughout as the exhaust passage H, 




Fig. 48. Core Box for Exhaust Passage. 

in Fig. 39, and it is made from a box very similar to 
Fig. 48. The round end of the core fits into the print 
K, in Fig. 41, and the opposite end abuts against that 
end of the steam chest core formed in the portion of 
the box marked L, in Fig. 46. 

The cores for the foot, F in Figs. 37 and 40, are made 



64 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



from the boxes illustrated in Figs. 49 and 50. Fig. 49 
(above) forms the cores for the outside of the foot ; Fig. 
50 (below) the core for the inside of the foot. The two 
cores made from Fig. 49 fit, one on each side of the print 
C, in Figs. 41, 42, 43. A comparison of the double re- 
ference letters, A A, B B, M M, with the corresponding 



f, BB- 





VAmmm 




-fF- -i 



Figs. 49 and 50. Core Boxes for the Cj Under Foot. 

letters on Figs. 37, 41, 42, will render the relations of the 
box, pattern, and the casting clear. The piece B, put in 
the box, forms one portion of the flange P. The bosses 
C C C form the bosses P, in Figs. 38 and 40. The box 
is framed together with grooved ends. These framed 
core boxes are commonly screwed together at the cor- 



AN ENGINE CYLINDER. 65 

ners, as I noted in connection with the core box, in Fig. 
46. An alternative and equally common method of 
holding the boxes together during ramming of the 
core, is shown in Fig. 49. Instead of screws, wooden 
clamps, D D, are used for pinching the box sides to the 
ends. The advantage of clamps is, that when a num- 
ber of cores are required out of one box, there is a 
saving of time effected in the use of clamps, because 
they can be removed instantly, while the turning out 
of screws occupies a minute or two. 

In Fig. 50, the length E E, and the breath F F of 
the core box, correspond with the length and breadth 
of the hollow portion of the foot in Figs. 37 and 40, 
and with the print in Figs. 41, 42, 43. The bosses 
B B B form the portion of the hold down bosses that 
come within the foot, as seen dotted in the end view, 
Fig. 40. The curved strip C forms the under portion 
of the circular guide E in Figs. 37 and 40. It is carried 
with battens D D. The shading illustrates the arrange- 
ment of the parts of the box. 

Two small core boxes complete the work for this 
cylinder. There is the box which cores out the oil 
cup N in Figs. 37 and 40, fitting into the impression 
made by the print Gr in Figs. 41 and 42. The box, 
Fig. 51, though small, is framed like the others, and 
has a bottom board. There is a central stud which 
leaves a boss in the casting, through which the oil 
hole, seen in Fig. 37, is drilled through the guide. 
Fig. 52 is the box for coring out the waste oil cup O, 
in Figs. 37 and 40. It fits the print M in Figs. 41 

5— (5159) 



66 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



and 42. The shading renders its mode of construction 
clear. 



A--I»; 





Fig. 51. Fig. 52. 

Core Boxes for Oil Cups. 

I have been precise in going through the details of 
this cylinder, and I have shaded the figures to show 
exactly how such a pattern is made. 



CHAPTER VI. 

GEAR WHEELS — PATTERNS. 

In this and two following chapters I want to illustrate 
a few typical examples of pattern work, a very few 
selected from the almost infinite number that occur in 
the shops. 

It is not possible to treat this subject of gear wheels, 
Figs. 53-62, except in an elementary way, in the 
space of a single chapter. Yet the subject cannot be 
entirely neglected in any treatise on pattern work. I 
shall, therefore, endeavour to touch lightly on its more 
salient and fundamental aspects, and allow the shaded 
illustrations to become, to a considerable extent, self- 
explanatory. 

The object of building up work, as explained in 
Chapter IV. pp. 35, 48, is to confer permanence of form, 
and strength. If a thin ring or slender sweep of 
quick curvature were cut from solid wood, however 
well seasoned, it would inevitably lose its true curva- 
ture, and in many cases become broken very quickly. 
If we make the ring or sweep of numerous segmental 
pieces with over-lapping joints, and well glued together, 
no alteration in shape of any moment will occur for 
a reasonably long period. This method is very widely 
adopted in standard patterns, and the writer has in 

«7 



68 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MA RING. 

present use patterns made in this way, from which, to 
his personal knowledge, several scores, and, in some 
cases hundreds of castings have been moulded. The 
general process is as follows : — 

A wooden face plate, Fig. 53, A, is first selected of 
suitable dimensions and screwed upon the face chuck 
(see Chapter IX., p. 120), of the lathe. The wooden 
plate is faced over true, circles C C of the rough diameter 
of the segments marked thereon, by which to lay the 




Fig. 53. Method of Building up Segments. 

first course of segments, and the building up is then 
commenced. Slips of paper, D, are interposed and 
glued between this first set and the plate, in order that 
the ring may be lifted off subsequently without the 
grain of the wood becoming torn out thereby. The 
paper joint retains the ring securely during turning, 
yet it parts through the centre on the application of 
slight leverage with a chisel. 

The segments are jointed carefully with a trying 
plane, and allowed to set quite firmly before being 
faced off. This facing off is usually done in the lathe, 



GEAR WHEELS— PATTERNS. 



69 



but may be done with a trying plane. After the first 
course is faced, the fitting of the superimposed courses 
proceeds, with intervals for drying of the glue between 
each. The trued face is whitened over with chalk in 
order to afford an index and test of the jointing of the 
segments above. The points of transference of the 
chalk indicate localities for the removal of material by 
the plane. The end joints are properly made with the 




Fig. 54. Shooting Joints. 

trying plane on the shooting board, as in Fig. 54, a 
mode of jointing which is very expeditious and very 
accurate. The glue should be strong, hot, and thin, and 
rubbed out tolerably well, but not too much so. Good 
glue will bear more rubbing out than poor glue. For 




Fig. 55. Peg for Segments. 
further security the joints should be pegged : Fig. 55 



?o 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



showing a view of a peg securing segment A to seg- 
ments B and C. 

Fig. 56 shows a spur wheel pattern, from which the 




Fig. 56. Pattern for Spur Wheel. 

general construction of built up work is apparent. The 
section of the rim A is usually turned to templets, 
made directly from the drawing board, on which the 



GEAR WHEELS— PATTERNS. ?1 

wheel is properly struck out to full size. The arms C 
are made to possess the maximum of strength, and in 
order to lessen risk of shrinkage, by being framed to- 
gether of three parallel strips with lapped or scarfed 
joints about the centre. The arm strips thus scarfed 
together and marked out ready to be cut to shape, and 




Fig. 57. Wheel Arms, prepared for cutting out. 

with sufficient extra length at the ends to permit of 
their being recessed, or " let into " the rim, are shown 
in Fig. 57. An enlarged view of the end of one arm 
illustrating the method of its attachment to the rim is 
seen in Fig. 58. Observe that all the radii by which 
the edges of the arms merge into one another and into 
the rim are cut out of solid wood, and not in this case 



72 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 




Fig. 58. Attachment of Arm to Rim. 

fitted in separate pieces by the methods illustrai ed on 
p. 49. 

The boss D, Fig. 56, is turned of a single piece of 
stuff, with a radius or hollow at the bottom. The 
vertical arms or ribs E are either abutted against the 
boss, or they are fitted into grooves cut in the boss, in 
the manner illustrated in the figure. At the other end 
they are fitted against the inner portion of the wheel 
rim. They are screwed to the flat arms 0, Figs. 56 





Fig. 59. Rib and Hollow, 
and 59. Lastly, all the sharp angles in the pattern are 



GEAR WHEELS— PATTERNS. 73 

filled up with hollows F ; these are seen. They are 
shown in Fig. 56, and in Fig. 59. These hollows were 
described and illustrated on p. 50, Fig. 35. 

This, in brief, is the method of construction of the 
rim and arms of the pattern of a spur wheel. The 
description will also apply in its essentials to the con- 
struction of other work, as fly-wheels, pulleys, trolly 
wheels, and much beside; but I have purposely chosen 
a gear wheel as an illustration of built up work, in pre- 
ference to anything else, because the formation and 
fitting of wheel teeth should receive some notice in a 
volume of this character. 

The teeth of gear wheels are fitted in various ways. 

In the case of small pinions they may be worked 
from a solid block, — the grain in the block running 
longitudinally, — so that even if subsequently affected 
by moisture or dryness, the circular form will remain 
intact, which could not be the case if the stuff were 
cut " plank way " of the grain. Or, the block may be 
turned to the diameter at the roots of the teeth, and 
the teeth made distinct, and fastened thereon. They 
may then (a) either be marked and worked quite inde- 
pendently of the block, or (b) they may be first fitted 
and screwed, or else dovetailed, marked while in posi- 
tion, and removed for working, to be returned and 
glued permanently. Or (c) they may be fitted and 
glued as rough blocks, marked out and worked in posi- 
tion with a gouge, chisel, and plane. Either of these 
methods, except that of working from the solid, also 
applies to the teeth of built up wheels. 



74 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



When the teeth are worked separately they are 
shaped with planes, either without any guide except 
the profile lines marked with dividers or compasses on 
each end, or within a box, Fig 60, the outlines of 
which are the same as that of the teeth, and which is 
notched out to the exact length, A, of a tooth ; to fit 
within which, the tooth blocks, B, are squared at the 
ends. 

The teeth are either set on the rim by centre lines, 
or by their edges, to centres divided out equi-distantly 




Fig. 60. Box for working Teeth in. 

around the periphery. Very much care is necessary 
in such fitting, both to secure uniformity of pitch, and 
to assure the teeth being at exact right angles, oi 
square across the face. Lines alone do not afford a 
sufficiently accurate guide for this purpose, but square 
and calipers have also to be brought into request. 

While the glue is warm, any slight adjustment found 
by these delicate tests to be necessary, can be made. 
After the glue is hard, and not before, the permanent 
adhesion of the teeth is best secured by driving brads 
through them into the rim. 

The amount of taper given to wheel teeth should be 



OEAR WHEELS-PATTERNS. 75 

extremely small, less than for any class of patterns. 
Arms, boss, and the inner face of rim may have abun- 
dance, but the teeth scarcely any, because it interferes 
with their correct working. If the teeth are made and 
pitched accurately, the merest shade of taper will 
suffice — the difference of two or three fine shavings 
only on teeth of 3" or 4" in depth — not more than ■£%" 
on teeth of so much as 8" or 10" deep. 

Glass papering of teeth should always be done with 
a rubber, never with the fingers, and the rubbing 
should mostly take place transversely, to remove any 
slight ridges left by the planes and chisels, and to 



Fig. 61. Glass Paper Rubber for Teeth. 

prevent the tendency of the rubber to impart a slightly 
rounding contour near the ends when it is worked 
longitudinally. The rubber should be rounding for the 
hollow curves, but flat for the rounding faces. Fig. 61 
shows a suitable form of rubber for wheel teeth. 

The pattern maker should design his wheel teeth 
either by means of generating circles, or by means of 
Willis's Odontograph. The first of these giv^s absolute, 
the second approximate cycloidal forms. Involutes 
are so seldom required, that I need take no account of 
them here. The principle of tooth formation should 
be, that all wheels of the same pitch be so constructed 
as to gear with all other wheels of the same pitch, 



76 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

irrespective of the numbers of their teeth.. This is a 
matter of economical importance in manufacture, where 
wheels have to be interchangeable, and employed for 
scores of different jobs. If a constant size of generating 
circle is employed for the flanks and faces of all the 
wheels of the same pitch, then any one wheel will gear 
with any other of the set. The smaller the size of this 
generating circle in relation to the pitch circle, or base 
circle, upon which it is rolled, the narrower will the 
teeth be across the roots. It is undesirable that any 
pinion roots should be narrower than those given by 
radial flanks, and this therefore sets the practical limit 
to the size of the generating circle of a set — a gener- 
ating circle whose diameter is equal to the radius of 
the pitch, or base circle, striking radial flanks. The 
smallest pinion of a set is therefore chosen as the base 
of the system, and the circle which strikes its radial 
flanks also strikes all the flanks and all the faces of all 
the other wheels and pinions of the same pitch. The 
size of this pinion is usually taken at 12 teeth. Should 
pinions of smaller teeth be wanted, as occasionally 
happens, they are struck with the same circle, the 
effect being to impart convex and undercut flanks 
thereto. Above 12 teeth all flanks are concave and 
spreading. 

It occasionally happens that for specially strong 
gears, or gears to match old wheels, special generating 
circles have to be employed. But this does not often 
happen, and constitutes no objection against the use of 
a constant size of circle. On no account should gears 




Fig. 62. Bevel Wheels. 



{5169) To face page 7 6 



GEAR WHEELS—PATTERNS. 77 

ever be struck out by rule of thumb, merely to please 
the eye. They should invariably be designed on some 
rigid principle. There is no method which for sim- 
plicity and accuracy can even compare with the em- 
ployment of cycloidal curves. A very close approxi- 
mation to true cycloidal curves — so close that it is 
practically identical therewith — is given by the use of 
Professor Willis's Odontograph scale. By its means 
the centres of the circle arcs, forming for the short 
distance required, the closest possible approximation to 
true cycloidal curves, are obtained directly. 

Fig 62 is drawn to illustrate the method of striking 
out bevel wheels, and also the method of construction 
of the patterns. A is a half section through the wheel 
casting ; A', a half section through its pattern ; B, a 
half section through the pinion casting ; B', one through 
its pattern. A" is the pitch diameter of A ; B" is the 
pitch diameter of B ; C is the common centre of the 
pitch cones of wheel and pinion — a a and b b respec- 
tively. A" and B" are the major diameters ; a' and V 
the minor diameters. The pitch, or distance from 
centre to centre of the teeth, is always reckoned on A" 
and B". 

To mark out these wheels, the centre lines D-C, E-C 
are struck at right angles ; the pitch diameters A", B", 
pricked off equidistantly from these, and the pitch 
cones of a, a — C, 6, b — C, projected. The lengths of 
the teeth, c, below, and d, above pitch, are pricked off, 
and being drawn to the centre, C, give the bevels of the 
roots and points respectively. The line which gives 



78 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

the thickness of the rim in the wheel is also drawn to 
the centre C. The flat arms, vertical arms, boss and 
hole are also drawn out. The teeth are not drawn on 
the actual pitch diameters, but on the projected dia- 
meters, D — rt, E — b ; that is on a plane at right angles 
with the pitch cones, a — 0, b — 0. The teeth on the 
minor diameters are struck on the planes F— e, Gr — e. 
The thicknesses of the teeth are pricked off on the pro- 
jected pitch lines, a and b. The curves of the faces and 
flanks having been obtained by the Odontograph scale, 
or by means of generating circles, suitable radii are 
obtained, and the centres of these radii are set in lines, 
f, g and h, struck concentric with the pitch lines. The 
radii for the wheel are, j for the flanks, 1c for the faces; 
and for the pinion, m for the flanks, Z for the faces, 
the latter being struck from the pitch line. The pitches 
o o set on the major diameter are projected to D and 
E, to the minor pitch diameters, F — e, Gr — e ; and the 
thickness of the teeth, the striking lines, and radii for 
the minor diameters are reduced in like proportion. 
The drawing renders these relations so clear that I 
think no further description is necessary. 



CHAPTER VII. 

GEAR WHEELS — MACHINE MOULDED. 

I have described the construction of a wheel moulding 
machine in my previous work, on " Iron Founding," in 
this series, and also the work of the moulder. I shall 
here therefore restrict my remarks to the construction 
of tooth blocks, core boxes, and boards, which com- 
prise the pattern maker's part of the business, and 
about which a very great deal might be said with 
advantage. 

The tooth block is of the first importance ; — core 
boxes and boards may be slightly inaccurate without 
affecting seriously the moulding or the casting ; not 
so the tooth block. There is no taper in the working 
part of the teeth, and any error existing in the block 
will be repeated on every tooth of the casting. Hence 
we make such blocks in mahogany, take the utmost 
pains in marking out and working, and set them on 
the carrier of the machine with spirit level and 
diameter gauge. Let us consider these before the 
boxes and boards, taking for example, spur, and bevel 
wheels, worm wheels, and screw wheels. 

In Fig. 63, representing a spur wheel block, A B 
are the teeth, a represents the thickness or "breadth 

79 



80 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



of face" of the wheel, the space d inclosed by A and 
B is that which forms the tooth shapes, correspond- 
ing with the inter-tooth profiles, and C is the block 
or backing to which the carrier of the machine is 
attached. Since the space d alone forms the inter- 





Tooth Block for Spur Wheel. 



tooth shape, it is clear that the outer profiles c c are of 
no importance. They might be cut straight back, so 
long as they clear the sand on the carrying round of 
the block. But it is usual to cut them as accurately as 
the inter-tooth profiles, for a good and practical reason. 
As the block is carried round and lowered, the side c 



GEAR WHEELS-MACHINE MOULDED. 81 

slides down the face formed by the left hand side of d, 
exactly coinciding therewith, and no loose sand from the 
ramming of the succeeding tooth can tumble between 
the two to the detriment of the mould. But since it is 
undesirable that any actual pressure should be exercised 
by side c against the slender sand which represents 
the tooth space, the outer edges, c, are chamfered or 
tapered slightly downwards, so that they only coincide 
precisely at the top edge. This taper is shown in the 
face view of the block in the figure. Also for a similar 
reason the faces e e of the block C are tapered down, 
clearing the inner faces of the sand. 

Different methods of making" these blocks prevail. 
Some are cut from solid wood — the grain running in 
the direction of the depth of the block, the teeth being 
cut from' the solid. Or the grain may run horizontally, 
and the teeth be simply glued on. Fig. 63 represents a 
third method in which the grain of C runs horizontally, 
and the teeth AB are let in with a single dovetail, and 
glued, and worked in place. The advantage of this is 
that it economizes material. Some hard superior wood, 
preferably mahogany, should always be used for the 
actual teeth themselves, which are subject to so many 
repetitions of ramming and withdrawal from the sand, 
while yellow pine is amply good enough for the back- 
ing C. 

The marking of the teeth is similar to that of an 
ordinary wheel. The block is first planed to a parallel 
thickness, and tested carefully with calipers, and the 
pitch lines, pitch, and thickuess of teeth — all divided 

G— (5159) 



62 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



from the centre line ffoi the block, which also represents 
the centre of the carrier of the machine, — are marked 
on one side. The centre line then is carried over by 
squaring it upon a surface plate or other true face, and 
the divisions for the other side marked. If the centres 
for the tooth curves come beyond the wood of the block, 



A- 



rpn 



■ -^— i- 

41 ' 



T 



B-- 




Fig. 64. Wheel with Arras of H Section. 

temporary slips are held or tacked in place to receive 
the divider points. As the block is being worked 
through with chisel, gouge, and planes, much care is 
taken to preserve the faces straight by means of a thin 
narrow straight-edge of hard wood, having its edge 
coloured with red lead, or whitened with chalk. The 
square should also be used, as the work nears comple- 



GEAR WHEELS— MACHINE MOULDED. 83 

cion, until at least the internal space d is straight, 
properly shaped, and at precise right angles with the 
face. The outsides may be finished with less care. 
Then a very slight amount of glass papering, per- 
formed with a rubber only, and three or four coats of 
rather thin varnish, will complete the block. 

The interior portions of machine moulded spur wheels 




C- 



Fig. 65. Core Box for Wheel with Arms of H Section 

are almost invariably made from cores, and there is one 
special form of arms almost invariably made use of : 
the H section, shown in Fig. 64, both in vertical and 
sectional plans. The core box for arms of this section 
is illustrated in Fig. 65, the upper figure being a plan 
section of the box along the line C-O, the lower figure 
a cross section along the line B-B. There are twc 
sides A A rebated and screwed together, and their 



84 



PRINCIPLES OP PATTPRJsr MAKING. 



inner faces b b form the inner faces of the vertical 
arms ; also a sweeped piece whose inner face d forms 
the interior face of the wheel rim, flat arms c c at top 
and bottom, the inner sweeped ribs e e which stiffen 




Fig. 66. Cored np Mould of Wheel. 

the rim, and the segmental boss f. A cored up mould 

ready for the cope is shown in Fig. 66, from which 
the relations of the several parts can be understood. 
A is the ring of teeth moulded from the tooth block, 
B B are the cores made from the box in Fig. 65, C is 



GEAR WHEELS— MACHINE MOULDED. 



85 



the central boss core, c the thickness of metal in tho 
boss, and d d the thickness of the vertical arms. A 
core box for arms of cross section is shown in Fig. 67, 
where A A are the sides, B the sweeped piece for form- 
ing the interior of the rim, C the segmental boss, D the 
stiffening rib within the rim, E E the flat arms. But 




Fig. 67. Core Box for Arms of Cross Section. 

these boxes are not used nearly so frequently as those 
for arms of H section. 

Bevel wheel blocks are made as shown in Fig. 68. 
I have dotted in the outline of the rim and arms, not 
because these have any existence in the block, but to 
illustrate the relation of the block to the wheel. The 
same remarks as to the fitting of mahogany teeth will 
apply as in the example of a spur wheel block. The 
teeth, however, are worked alike on the outer and inner 



86 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



tooth faces, because their bevel prevents any contact 
with the sand occurring before they are actually in 
place. The block is marked out by taking lines off the 
wheel drawing, in horizontal and radial directions, to 
obtain certain definite intersections. Thus, by taking 
radii a b c, corresponding with ganged horizontal lines 
a' b' c', we obtain at once correct positions for root, pitch 




a— 



*L • 



d - 




Fig. 68. Tooth Block for Bevel Wheel. 

line, and point of teeth on large diameter, and by means 
of trammels, and long toothed gauge, these dimensions 
are easily transferred to the tooth. The dimensions on 
the minor diameter are obtained similarly. Bearing in 
mind that the tooth block is merely a short segment 
of the outer portions of the actual wheel rim, it is clear 
that it will be marked out by essentially the same 
principles as a pattern wheel. These were explained 
in the previous chapter in connection with Fig. 62. 
Before moulding the ring of teeth for a bevel wheel, 



GEAR WHEELS-MACHINE MOULDED. 



87 



it is necessary to strike a bed of sand for the bottom 
face of the wheel arms, and for the tooth points. The 
board is shown in Fig. 69. The joint A of the mould 
corresponds with the plane c' in Fig. 68. By means 
of the outline of the tooth, dotted in Fig. 69, the 
relation of the board to the toothed ring is apparent. 



H-- 




Fig. 69. Board for striking Bed and Cope. 

When the tooth block is lowered, the faces of the 
teeth rest on the sand struck with B, and their innei 
ends on the sand struck with C. The arm cores rest 
on D. E is the strap or striking bar to which the 
board is bolted. It swivels around the turned pillar F, 
and the strap is kept at the correct height by means 
of the collar G. The other edge of the board is cut to 



88 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

strike the cope. H forms the joint face, which, being 
turned over, rests upon the face struck by A. J strikes 
the sloping outer ends of the teeth, K the contour of 
the top of the vertical ribs, L the boss. Of course 
during striking the cope, the position of the board is 
reversed upon the strap, the edge H, J, K, L being set 
lowermost. 

Fig. 70 illustrates the core box for this bevel wheel ; 
A A are the sides, and their inner faces form the faces 
of the vertical arms ; B is the sweeped piece that forms 
the interior of the rim, shown dotted in Fig. 68 ; D is 
the segmental boss ; E the flat arms ; F is a strickle 
swept round to form the top of the core, and main- 
tained in a radial position with the templet piece G. 

The tooth blocks for helical wheels, both spur and 
bevel, though coming under the same general rules 
as these just noted, differ therefrom in many details. 
Though not perhaps so apparent in the sketch, Fig. 71, 
as it is in the actual mould, the ramming up of the 
lower portion of a helical tooth is not easily done 
unless a division is effected along the line «-«, and the 
upper half of the block is removed. This division is 
therefore made, except in the case of shallow wheels 
of coarse pitch where the interference is but slight. 

There is another thing. Many machines are only 
properly constructed to lift their tooth blocks verti- 
cally, a mode of withdrawal which is clearly im- 
possible in the case of helical teeth. By making, 
therefore, the actual teeth distinct from the backing, 
yet united temporarily in such a way that they shall 



GEAR WHEELS-MACHINE MOULDED. 89 




SECTION. 

Fig. 70. Core Box for Bevel Whee], 



90 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



be as one, the carrier block can be lifted vertically, 
leaving the teeth behind, to be withdrawn in the 
horizontal direction. Being made in this way, the 
division along the line a-a gives no extra trouble, but 
is really convenient for marking out the teeth on their 
middle planes, and the lower portion of the teeth can 



cx- 




-a 



Fig. 71. Tooth Block for Helical Spur. 

bo rammed while the upper portion is temporarily 
removed. 

Though helical gears are true screw gears, they are 
not marked out as portions of screws, but the helical 
form is simply developed during the working through. 
The amount of angle of the teeth is that which is 
determined first, and is decided by the condition that 



GEAR WHEELS— MACHINE MOULDED. 91 

as one tooth leaves contact, say at the centre, its fellow 
will have commenced contact at the edge. So that 
the amount of obliquity will increase with coarseness 
of pitch and breadth of face. 

There are three or four methods by which the teeth 
are attached to the hinder portions of the block. 
Fig. 71 shows a very common method, where the teeth 
being divided in the horizontal plane a-a are united as 
a whole to the backing by means of a broad dove- tail, 
so tapered that though the fit is close without slop 
when the parts are in actual place, there is freedom 
of movement directly the hinder block is started. 
Actually there is a total of about §" of taper on the 
edges of the dove-tail, on a block of from four to six 
inches deep. Sometimes two narrower dove-tails side 
by side are employed instead of the single broad one. 

It often happens that the curvature of a wheel of 
small radius is such that the outer flanks of the teeth 
on the block are under-cut in relation to each other, — 
the outer faces standing beyond parallel lines carried 
out from the flanks. Then another division in the 
block is necessary, passing down midway between the 
teeth, as shown in Fig. 72. 

The shape of the teeth in helical wheels is marked 
as in ordinary gears, taking care to have their centre 
lines on the faces, and on the middle joint truly radial. 
The surface sweep corresponding with the points of 
the teeth should then be cut round before anything else 
is done, and the lines representing the terminations of 
the tooth faces marked round with a bent steel or 



92 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



thin lath of wood. The working of the tooth faces 
and flanks from face to joint is then done with gouge 
and chisel, assisted with templet, and it will be found 
that the amount of twist corresponding with the pitch 
and width will be developed in the act of working 
through. 
The shape of the teeth in angle wheels, Fig. 72, 




Fig. 72. Tooth Block for Angle Wheel. 

and worm wheels, Fig. 73, is rather difficult to obtain. 
In angle wheels the best plan is to draw diagonals on 
paper taken from the development of the wheels on 
the drawing board, and glue this paper around the face 
of the block, the diagonal lines representing the tooth 
points ; — thus establishing the connection between the 
tooth faces, the curve being developed by the gluing 



GEAR WHEELS— MACHINE MOULDED. 



93 



around. Very much can be done with paper templets 
in screws and screw gears more readily than by obtain- 
ing a number of points of intersection. The paper 
method exemplifies the fact that an inclined plane 
wrapped around a cylinder develops the screw. In 
angle wheels and in worms the use of paper affords the 
best and readiest method of marking the profiles. 

Fig. 73 illustrates the block for a worm wheel. 
The teeth may be made fast to the backing, or loose 
to slide away, as shown in the figure. If made fast 




Fig. 73. Tooth Block for Worm Wheel. 

they can only be drawn back horizontally. If made 
loose the backing A can be lifted vertically, and the 
teeth B withdrawn by the fingers in a horizontal 
direction. This is the better plan. For the same 
reason it is better to make the teeth B for the screw 
wheel in Fig. 72 separate from the backing A ; and 
in addition it is also frequently necessary to joint the 
teeth at a-a, as shown, because the under cutting of 
the outsides of the teeth would often prevent them 
from being drawn backwards together. In such 
wheels, therefore, the block A is lifted first vertically, 
and the blocks B, each carrying one tooth, separately 
with the finger, in a horizontal direction. 



94 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



Wheels of small diameter are generally made with 
a central disc, or plate, instead of with arms, Fig. 74. 




Fig. 74. riated Wheel. 

Then their central portions are made with ring cores, 
from the box, Fig. 75. These are set in the mould 
without prints, and the space between them corres- 




Fig. 75. Core Box for Plated Wheel. 
ponds with the thickness of the plate or disc. So 
much of the boss thicknesses as stand beyond the 
wheel faces is bedded in the sand in top and bottom 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 

A very large and important branch of the pattern 
maker's work consists in the preparation of sweeps and 
strickles of various kinds for foundry use. The mere 
making of these is easy enough, but it is not this of 
which I am going to speak, but of the economical im- 
portance of this branch of work, very much of which, 
in some shops at least, depends upon the initiative of 
the pattern maker himself, who may often either go to 
a deal of unnecessary expense in making actual work 
in wood, in sheer ignorance, when the cheaper strickles 
would have answered the purpose as well. But he must, 
nevertheless, be able to discriminate between what is 
actual economy, and that false economy which simply 
transfers the cost from the pattern, to the moulding 
department. For there are plenty of cases in which, 
though strickles would answer the purpose, the making 
of a pattern would be cheaper, either because of the 
large amount of difficult work involved in the foundry, 
or because the work, though comparatively simple, has 
to be repeated several times over for several distinct 
castings. The balance of economy must be struck in 
each individual case ; each separate job must be decided 
on its merits. 

95 



96 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Having given, this necessary caution by way of 
preface, I will divide, for convenience, strickled work 
into that which is symmetrical, and that which is 
un symmetrical in character. In each case the edge 
of the board or strickle corresponds with the sectional 
profile of the work. In the former is included all re- 
volving work, as core, and loam boards ; in the latter 
all " strickles," properly so called. 

In revolving" work there are two conditions ; one, in 
which the striking board is moved, the other, that in 
which the work is revolved. In the first case, the 
board is attached to a central bar which turns upon its 
axis ; in the second, the board is laid upon trestles, 
and the distance from the centre of the revolving core 
bar, upon which the work is built or struck, to the 
edge of the board, governs the diameter of the work. 
The board is revolved when the work is massive ; the 
work is revolved when it is convenient or necessary 
that the work shall be portable. Thus, in all loam 
work built with bricks, the board is turned, and beds 
or copes for machine-made wheels are also struck with 
sweeping boards ; but in all circular cores made with- 
out bricks, the core bar is turned, and the board is 
stationary. In each case it is essential that the correct 
radius be obtained. In loam work the central bar is 
of a definite size, — 2£", or 2£", and one-half of this is 
deducted from the length A of the board, Fig. 76, so 
that its working length is equal to the radius B, minus 
If" in the first case, or I5-" in the second. This is 
sufficiently accurate for all shallow moulds ; but in 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 



97 



very deep moulds the sway of the upper end a of the 
bar, due to the wearing of the step 0, often produces 







Fig. 76. Striking Board for Loam. 



inaccuracy in the mould to the extent of from an \" to 
|". Besides this, there is such a thing as inaccurate 
cutting, and levelling of the board. For these reasons 



7— (51 oy^ 



98 



PRINCIPLES OB 1 PATTERN MAKING. 



the diameters of the mould itself are properly checked 
by means of diameter gauges. 

The proper way to set a shallow board attached 
with one strap only, Fig. 77, is to plane the top edge 
and end at right angles with each other, the top edge 
being strictly parallel with the bottom edge. Then if 
the socket C of the bar B is truly levelled in the 








Fig. 77. Striking Board for Lo;tm. 

foundry floor, and the spirit level A shows truth on the 
top edge of the board, the latter must be truly hori- 
zontal. 

In the case of core boards used with core bars, the 
radius is obtained by direct measurement at the time 
of setting up the board on the trestles, and when the 
correct position is obtained the board is loaded with 
weights, or clamped to the trestles. When the core is 
nearly finished the diameter is checked with calipers, 
and readjustment for radius is made when necessary. 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 99 

In repetitive work where many cores, all precisely- 
alike, are being made, a rigid attachment of some 
kind, as a turned cast iron collar, is properly made to 
preserve the radius of the board constant throughout. 

The edges of striking boards, whether used for loam, 
or for cores, or for green sand, are properly cut as 
shown in Fig. 78 A, which is a section drawn to large 




A B 

Fig. 78. Edges of Striking Boards. 

size. The angle of the edge may vary, of course, but it 
is not desirable to have it vary much less than that 
shown in the figure, or the loam surface will be rough- 
ened up ; and it is not well to increase it greatly, or 
the edge of the board will be weakened thereby. The 
edge should never be left sharp and angular as in Fig. 
78 B, since that will roughen up the surface of the 
loam, but always rounding as in Fig. 78 A. When a 
board is being used over and over again, as for standard 
column cores, the edge should be protected with a 
sheet of hoop iron screwed along, Fig. 78 A a. The 
board is swept against the loam in the direction of the 
arrow. 

Boards used on trestles should always be long 



100 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

enough to include the core prints, and also be six or 
eight inches at each end beyond, for support upon the 
trestles. They should also be rigid, not flimsy, or they 
will " sag," and yield before the body of loam, so that 
the core will become larger in the central parts than 
next the ends. When boards are so long that the re- 
quisite rigidity cannot be secured without using wood 
of excessive thickness, say of over 1£" or 1J", then a 
stiffening rib should be screwed along the top face, or 
along the bottom face, so that it clears the trestles. 
From 1" to 1\" should not as a rule be exceeded for the 
thickness of loam boards and core boards of moderate 
length. 

Boards having irregular outlines must often be 
framed together, in order to avoid shortness of grain. 
An example of such a form occurs in Fig. 76. 

Striking boards are frequently employed to make 
patterns in loam, to save the cost of wood. From a 
pattern made in loam, dried, and coated with tar, a 
good many moulds may be taken, — eight, or ten, per- 
haps, if used carefully. A good many patterns of large 
size, which are required for temporary purposes only, 
are made in this way. Fig. 79 shows the board and 
bar arranged for striking up the pattern of a large air 
vessel. This method is adopted in many cases. Thus, 
if the diameter of the casting is such that a man can- 
not stand within to strike a board around — say of two 
feet or less in diameter— a loam pattern is made, and 
moulded either in green, or in dry sand, just as though 
it were of wood. A loam pattern in this case is 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 101 

much cheaper than one in wood, and answers the pur- 
pose very nearly, or quite as well. In other cases the 
choice would lay only between patterns made in loam, 
or in wood, a loam mould being altogether too costly. 
In Fig. 79, A is the board, B the trestles, C the loam 
pattern, D the core bar, E the handle by which it is 
revolved, F the core print, G the neck of the vessel, a a 
the turned journals of the bar. 




Fig. 79. Striking up a Loam Pattern. 

It is evident that these boards will only strike 
symmetrical forms. When castings are in the main 
sy mmetrical, they often have flanges, facings, brackets, 
bosses cast with them also. These are then necessarily 
prepared just as though the entire pattern were of wood, 
and are fitted and attached to the loam pattern, or 
embedded in the loam mould, as the case may be. 
When these fittings are very numerous, it becomes in 
some cases a question whether, considering the better 



102 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

facilities which, patterns in wood afford over those in 
loam for the fastening of attachments, it is not worth 
while making the whole in wood. The question is 
then one of relative dimensions, because very large 
patterns, even though plain, are expensive. Here the 
pattern maker must use his judgment. Both in com- 
posite patterns, and in loam moulds, much care is neces- 
sary in the correct setting of the various attachments, 
and this is usually the pattern maker's work ; the 
moulders seldom take responsibility in these matters. 

It is obvious that joints cannot be made in loam 
patterns, as in those of wood ; the jointing of the mould 
.s done therefore around solid patterns, and the lifts 
are often bad in consequence. 

In many cases of hollotv work, as in those where a 
single casting only is wanted off a loam pattern, the 
core intended to be used is struck first and dried, a 
thickness of black wash laid upon it, and a thickness 
of loam, representing the thickness of the metal in the 
casting, is struck on. This then forms the pattern. 
After the mould is made, the " thickness " is stripped 
or peeled off, at the parting made by the black wash, 
and the core laid in place. When several castings are 
wanted, a separate pattern is made, and the cores 
made quite distinct therefrom. 

Unsymmetrical work embraces that which is not 
revolved, but swept up with strickles working against 
guides of various kinds. The commonest application 
of the principle is seen in the striking of a pipe 
pattern or pipe core, Fig. 80, A, the guide iron B 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 103 

being a length of square bar bent to the required 
curvature, and becoming a guide to the strickle, Fig. 
80, C, with which the core or loam pattern is struck 
up. Often the edge of a cast iron plate is made the 
guide, and then the core is dried upon the plate. Twc 
such halves cemented together form in section a com- 
plete core section. In shops where much loam work, 
and work of a temporary and at the same time massive 
character is done, strickling or sweeping up assumes 
an important character and is done in multifarious 




Fig. 80. Strickling. 

methods. The simple strickles working against guide 
irons are capable of sweeping up almost any forms, even 
though the cross sections and dimensions change per- 
petually, and even though it may not, owing to change 
in section, be possible to move the strickles longi- 
tudinally. Yet they will leave impressions at definite 
localities, and the loam which is intermediate between 
these localities can be swept off by other strickles 
moving transversely, or at right angles to the others. 
Thus a centrifugal pump casing in which the form is 
that of a volute, and in which no two sections are 
alike, can be made with strickles, the only actual pattern 
work necessary being feet and flanges. Such a method 
would not of course be pursued unless the pump were 



104 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

a casual job only. For standard work a complete 
pattern and core box would be made. The beds for 
propeller screws are struck by sheet iron templets bent 
to a helix corresponding with the pitch of the screw, 
the board being guided in its travel by the edge of 
the sheet iron. The mould, or the loam pattern of a 
screw barrel used for cranes is struck against a templet 
screw, which is variously fixed according to the nature 
of the mould or pattern, whether struck in the vertical 
or horizontal direction. 

Enough has been said to illustrate the economical 
importance of a strickle used in combination with a 
guide. Of no less importance is the obtaining of 
thicknesses. I mentioned just now the striking a 
body of sand on a circular core of equal thickness to 
that required in the casting. The practice of striking 
thicknesses on cores whose forms are unsymmetrical is 
also adopted ; first, by having a strickle sufficiently 
large, and a " check," as it is termed, in such a position 
that the core, and pattern strickles shall be concentric 
with each other, Fig. 80, the full line representing 
the core strickle, the dotted line the pattern one, the 
check B being at an equal distance from the centre in 
each case. The guide iron remains thus fixed in the 
same position during the striking of both core and 
pattern. This method is adopted when practicable. 

In work which is rubbed to shape by a strickle work- 
ing transversely to the shapes moulded by strickles 
working in the longitudinal direction, other methods 
are necessarily adopted. There are at least two ways 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 105 

equally good. One is to plane up strips, if the work is 
straight, or cut sweeped strips where the profiles are 
curved, of the precise thickness of the metal required ; 
to tack or lay these on the loam core, and fill up the 
interstices with loam, strickling it off level with their 
upper edges. "When it is fairly set, but not baked, the 
strips are withdrawn and their spaces filled with loam, 
level with the rest, and the core baked. A slight 
touching up with glass-paper afterwards finishes the 
surface ready for blackening. Another mode is to drive 
a number of flat-headed chaplet nails into the loam 




Fig. 81. Gauging " thickness " with nails. 

core, allowing their heads to stand above its surface to 
a distance equal to the thickness of metal, a gauge like- 
Fig. 81 A being used for obtaining uniformity. These 
nail heads are the guide for laying on the thickness 
loam uniformly over the surface. They are easily 
withdrawn after the pattern is moulded, and when the 
core is wanted for placing in the mould. 

Irregular joint faces sometimes occur, and then a 
bed of sand is strickled off to the form required. Cer- 
tain portions of the outlines of cores made in boxes are 
sometimes strickled to avoid cutting material to waste. 



106 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



The faces of moulds are often strickled at some dis- 
tance below the general level of the pattern face to 
avoid jointing the pattern itself. In a vast number of 
ways the strickle and striking boards are utilized to 
save the cost of pattern work. 

The obtaining of sweeped outlines by the ramming of 
green sand against sweeps of wood, though not strictly 
coming under this head, is yet so near akin thereto 
that the present is the most suitable place to allude to 
it. A ring can be made either by cutting a sweep to 





Fig. 82. Sweep. 



Fig. 83. Sweep. 



the radius, and the sectional form of the ring, Fig. 82, 
and ramming the sand around ; or if the ring is broad, 
by using two sweeps, one for the outer, and the other 
for the inner radius. The sweeps in each case may 
either be worked round at the end of a radius rod 
pivoted on a central stake of wood, Fig. 83 ; or a level 
bed of sand being struck with a board, or being 
levelled with winding strips, — lines corresponding with 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 107 

the diameters of the circles are struck thereon and the 
sweeps rammed to these lines. Not only plain sweeps, 
but foundation plates, bed- plates, base plates, and 
many similar castings may be moulded in this way, 
and brackets, facings and other attachments can be 
bedded in at any required positions, while central por- 
tions can be formed with cores. It is desirable that 
there should be little work in the cope ; but still with 
care a goodly number of fittings can be included in 
that, either by direct measurement, or by ramming a 
plain bed and laying thereon the portions which are 
to come in the cope, and then staking the latter in 
place, and ramming it upon the bed, when the im- 
pressions of facings, 'brackets, etc., will be left in the 
position which they are finally to occupy. All such 
measurement is the pattern-maker's work. 




Fig. 84. Striclding a Panel. 



Fig. 84 illustrates a method of strickling which ia 
much in use to save the cost of timber and of labour. 



108 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

This is for a boiler-maker's templet block, used for 
hammering the sheets of wrought iron buoys upon to 
their curvature. Instead of laboriously cutting out an 
entire solid plate, a frame only, A is made, of sides and 
ends halved together, and the interior is completed in 
sand with the strickle B. Flat plates, when of large 
area, are almost invariably made in this way, with 
open frames and strickles, and the flat plated portions 
of many patterns which are made complete in all other 
respects, are also frequently plated and strickled. 

Fig. 85 is an illustration of an ornamental column 
used for railings. Its shaft is enveloped with a double 
helix, and shallow circular recesses break the mono- 
tony of the inter-spaces. Scroll work is cut in relief 
in base and capital, and a square flange on the base 
serves to fix the column in position. It is obvious that 
if this column were only divided through the centre 
like an ordinary column or pipe, it would not deliver 
from the mould at all, because the helices, the shallow 
recesses at the sides, and the spaces between the re- 
lieved scrolls would tear up the sand. Therefore the 
method shown in Fig 25, p. 41, but slightly modified, 
is adopted. The pattern is jointed as usual along the 
middle plane A — A, shown in the upper part of the 
figure, in which is represented a section through the 
shaft of the column. But each half of the column on 
each side of the joint plane A — A is formed in three 
pieces, B, C, C, jointed along the lines a a. Skewers 
retain C C in place during ramming. When with- 
drawing the pattern, B B are brought out first in the 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. 109 




a a 

CROSS SECTION. 



direction of the arrows, and after- 
wards C C C are drawn in the 
direction of their arrows, into the 
spaces left by the removal of B B. 
The whole of the shallow circular 
recesses, and the helices, and the 
relieved scroll work will then 
deliver in detail freely, without 
fracture of the mould. The joint 
lines a a are seen in the eleva- 
tion of the pattern. The square 
base is unjointed except the joint 
in the middle plane A — A, and any 
prints put upon the ends would be 
jointed only in the middle plane. 
When making such a pattern as 
this all the rough strips of stuff 
are jointed up before any turning 
is done. They are secured during 
turning in various ways. The 
centre joint A — A is dowelled and 
secured with centre plates, see p. 




Fig. 85. 
Ornamental Column. 



110 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



124. The side pieces C C may be screwed to B, the 
heads of the screws being countersunk sufficiently 
deep not to come in the way of the turning tools. Or 
they may be held with paper joints : that is, narrow 
slips of paper, two or three inches in width, three or 
four in number in the length of the column, will be 
glued in the joint faces a of C and B. The opposite 
sides of the paper are glued to B and C respectively. 
This joint holds very firmly, yet when the turning is 
done the joint can be easily broken with a chisel, the 
paper dividing through the centre of its substance. 
I have not shown any timber shading in the column, 
fearing to interfere with the clearness o± the details. 
The whole of the grain runs longitudinally, except that 
in the square bottom flange, which runs as illustrated. 
Patterns jointed thus along the sloping lines a a, 
the middle part delivering first and the side pieces 
after, are employed to a large extent in ornamental 
work. When we have very ornate capitals to make, 
there will also be a number of minor and local joints 
necessary to get scrolls and leaves out of the sand. 




Fig. 86. Bottom Board. 



Fig. 86 illustrates a very common device. It is a 
turn-over board, or bottom board. When light flimsy 
patterns, and when almost any patterns are made in 



SELECTED MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES. Ill 

considerable quantity in flasks, and when patterns 
have irregular outlines, turn-over boards are often 
employed. One portion, usually one-half the pattern, 
is laid upon the bottom board, the drag part of the 
moulding box put over it, and rammed up and turned 
over. The bottom board keeps the pattern true, and 
forms the joint face of the mould. This face is then 
ready to receive the remaining portion of the pattern 
which is rammed in the cope. The bottom board A in 
the figure is formed of stout boards, with open joints, 
and battens B. The pattern C is a pipe. 




Fig. 87. A Name Plate ready for Lettering. 

The patterns of name plates are made in all sizes 
and forms, usually of wood. A thin piece of wood is 
planed and cut to the outline required, and filleting is 
glued or nailed around the edges. Lines are drawn 
upon the plate, and letters of lead or brass are ce- 
mented on with varnish, or are nailed on, or in the 



112 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



case of heavy patterns, are screwed on. Fig. 87 shows 
an elliptical plate prepared for the letters. Fig. 88 
illustrates a rectangular plate with the letters fas- 
tened on. 




r^>-^^ 



a t^.-^^ 



^aABSs^B 



Fig. 88. A Name Plate Finished. 



CHAPTER IX. 

PATTERN TURNING. 

The proper use of tools cannot be taught even in an 
elementary way in a treatise of this kind, and I am not 
going to attempt it. Still, it seems to me that some 
little space should be devoted to that section of the 
trade which is performed in the lathe, and without 
this even an elementary treatise would be regarded as 
wanting. 

Pattern turning, however, has few points in common 
with ordinary wood turning beyond the employment of 
similar lathes and tools. I have referred to these tools 
on p. 9. Accuracy is of more importance in pattern 
work than finish and polish. In common wood turn- 
ing the contrary usually holds good. Further, much 
pattern turning is of large dimensions, while cabinet 
turning is usually small and delicate. Then there is 
some taper, more or less, wanted on nearly all sections 
of pattern work, while there is nothing of the kind to 
trouble the cabinet turner. I will consider a few typi- 
cal illustrations of pattern turning in order to elucidate 
these points. And I will for convenience consider the 
several illustrations under the heads of turning between 
centres, turning in cup or bell chucks, and finally 
turning upon face plates. 

8— (5159) 113 



114 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



Turning between centres is performed while the 
work is pivoted at one end upon the centre of the 

sliding poppet, and driven at 
the other with the fork, or 
prong centre of the fast head- 
stock. The stuff is roughed 
down with the gouge, held 
generally as in Fig. 89. The 
cutting is done in a slightly 
diagonal direction ; which dia- 
gonal cutting, now to right, 
now to left, removes the ma- 
terial more easily, and with 
less stress, and leaves the sur- 
face cleaner than as if the 
gouge were presented nor- 
mally to the work. Observe the 
position of the hands in the 
figure ; while the right hand 
grasps the end of the handle 
firmly and so manipulates and 
thrusts the tool to its work, 
the left hand controls the cut- 
ting edge. The tool is gripped 
upon the rest between the 
forefinger and thumb so that 
it cannot " kick " away from 
its work under the stress of 
cutting, which stress, tending to drive the tool out- 
wards is very severe when turning down sloping faces. 




Fig. 89. Method of holding 
Turning Gouge. 



PATTERN TURNING. 



Wo 



More troublesome than this, however, to a beginner is 
the manipulation of the turning chisel. It is held simi- 
larly to the gouge, and presented as in Fig. 90. When 
cutting straight and convex profiles it is invariably 
used as in the figure. That is, it is tilted upon the rest, 
and cutting is done only with about one-third or one- 
half of the edge nearest the corner a. If cutting is 
carried along too near to the corner &, the chisel will 
hitch in the wood and tear it out in an unsightly 
fashion. But when the cutting is done towards a in a 




Fig. 90. Presentation of Turning Chisel. 

proper manner, a very smooth surface is imparted to 
the work, because the cutting takes place in a diagonal 
direction, which is always most conducive to perfection 
of results. This is seen in the skew mouth rebate 
plane, in diagonal cutting with a chisel in the mitre 
cutting machine, and in other common examples. 

But because the chisel operates along so narrow a 
section of its cutting edge, the surface of the work be- 
comes, in the hands of an unskilful man, a series of 
minute ridges. The larger the diameter of the work 
and the more irregular its outline, the more difficult it 



116 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

is to prevent the formation of these ridges. For this 
reason, most pattern makers, who perhaps are not quite 
so skilful at lathe work as those who are turners by 
profession, use a firmer chisel to smooth down the 
ridges left from the common turning chisel. And in 
all work of large diameter, that is, say of over about 
3" or 4", and in all fiat or face work, the firmer chisel 
is used directly after the gouge, and so the finish of 
large surfaces is imparted entirely by scraping. 

To scrape a surface truly and smoothl} 7 , some practice 
is required. The tool is apt to yield before the wood, 
and presently the wood wobbles and becomes eccentric. 
Then the grain becomes torn out in certain places. It 
is torn out in minute splinters when the turning is 
being done parallel with the grain. When being done 
"- plank way," the end grain not being cut properly, 
becomes dragged up and has a rugous appearance. No 
amount of glass-papering will .smooth such surfaces 
and make them true, so that the art of scraping lies in 
keeping the chisel as sharp as possible, and holding it 
rigidly to its work. Also, as the gouge is a true cut- 
ting tool, and the chisel when used as a scrape is not, 
as much material as possible should be removed with 
the gouge, leaving the veriest film to be smoothed and 
levelled with the chisel. It is as well to add that the 
chisel when used for scraping should be sharpened more 
obtusely, or " thicker " than when employed for bench 
work. 

The corner b of the turning chisel is used for cut- 
ting down faces which are perpendicular, and nearly 



PATTERN TURNING. 



117 



so, to the axis of the lathe. The corner a is not suitable 
for this. "When employed thus the chisel kicks back. 
When cutting downwards with the corner b, Fig 90, as 
shown in Fig. 91, the part of the chisel towards a must 
not be allowed to come into cutting contact with the 
work, or the tool will kick back. The corner b is also 
used for parting or dividing off work, which it does 




Fig. 91. Chisel turning Perpendicular Faces. 

with much ease and freedom. When turning down a 
perpendicular face with this corner, either for finish- 
ing its surface, or for parting off, the chief difficulty is 
to cut the face true ; it is apt to become slightly wavy. 
'The remedy is to keep the chisel well sharpened, and 
to grasp it firmly. Frequently, however, when the 
face is of considerable depth, the right or the left hand 
side tools, Fig. 92, are employed to finish them by 
scraping. 



118 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 




Fig. 92. Side Tool. 



Turning in the cup chuck, 

or bell chuck, is done instead 
of turning between centres, 
when a recess has to be bored 
in the front end of the work, 
which could not be done if it 
were centred upon the back 
poppet ; or when a number of 
small articles have to be turned 
and cut off in succession from a 
single piece of wood. The piece 
of stuff to be turned is driven 
into the bell chuck with a ham- 
mer, or with the poll of the axe, 
having been first roughed out 
with the axe, or by rough turn- 
ing, to fit the hole in the cup 
chuck tightly. A very long 
piece of stuff cannot be turned 
in the cup chuck without such 
vibration as would be fatal to 
accurate turning. In an ex- 
ceptional case of this kind, a 
wooden steady must be em- 
ployed. For boring holes in the 
front of work held in this chuck, 
the gouge and side tools are em- 
ployed. And if there are con- 
cave profiles, these are finished 
with the round nose tool. 



PATTERN TURNING. 



119 



Turning' on face plates is done in quite one-half 
of the pattern work effected in the lathe. The work 
which, is done on the face plate ranges from two 01 
three inches in diameter to six or eight feet. The face 
chucks themselves are of metal, screwed to fit the man- 
drel nose. But for most work it is convenient to make 
use of chucks of wood intermediate between the metal 
chuck and the work. Flat work is secured to face 
chucks by five general methods. First, for small light 
blocks which do not require to be bored, the screw of 





ml 


»« 


fi 



Fig. 93. Taper Screw Chuck. 

the taper screw chuck, Fig. 93, affords sufficient hold. 
For work of somewhat greater weight, three or four 
wood screws are run into the wood through the holes 




Fi<?. 94. Face Chuck. 



which are drilled and countersunk in the plate, Fig. 94. 

however, the intermediate 



For the bulk of 



turning, 



120 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



chuck of wood, Fig. 95, A, is employed. This is screwed 
upon the metal chuck B, and faced over in the lathe, 
and the block C which has to be turned, being first 
planed truly on the face which is intended to go against 
the face of the plate, is screwed to it. By using this 
intermediate plate of wood, rings and flanges can be 
turned even when their internal diameters are larger 




Fig. 95. Intermediate Wood Chuck. 

than the metal chuck, because the screws which hold 
the work pass through the wooden chuck beyond the 
radius of the metal plate, as seen in Fig. 95. Also, 
when finishing bored holes, the tools do not come into 
contact with a metal face ; but only with one of 
wood. Further, work can be chucked and re-chucked 
on wooden plates by convenient methods which would 
not be practicable in the case of the metal chucks. 
For instance, paper joints are frequently made for the 



PATTERN TURNING. 



121 



first course of segments employed for building up rings 
of wheels and pulleys, see Fig. 53, p. 68. And work 
is rechucked either by a shallow annular recess in the 
wooden chuck, or by screwing three or four blocks, A, 




Fig. 96. Chucking with Blocks. 

Fig. 96, upon the plate, and recessing these to receive 
the face and edges of the ring already turned, so that 
when re-chucked, the opposite face and adjacent edges, 
if need be, may be turned. 

The intermediate face chucks are made of soft wood, 
as yellow pine, or red deal. If small, they are solid. \i 



122 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 



of moderate size, say over 15" or 18" in diameter, they 
are made of two or three strips held together with 
battens, Fig. 97. But if of large size, say from 3' 0" 




Fig. 97. Face Plate with Battens. 

upwards, they are better if framed together in the way 
shown in Fig. 98. A cross of stout wood is halved to- 
gether, and segments are screwed to this to form the 
face of the chuck. It is with a view to preserve these 
large plates as long as possible for service that chuck- 
ing blocks like those in Fig. 96, A, are screwed to 
them, in preference to recessing the plates themselves. 
Turning jointed patterns is properly done after the 
timber has been jointed and dowelled. That is, in- 
stead of turning a solid piece of wood and sawing it 
down to make a joint, the wood is jointed first and 
then turned, and its circular form is perfect. The work 
thus jointed is secured during turning by the following 



PATTERN TURNING. 123 

methods. The halves of small light patterns turned 




Fig. 



Face Plate with Cross. 



between centres are frequently held with wood screws, 
Fig. 99, run into waste wood just beyond the ends of 
the actual pattern, or if in the pattern portion, they are 




Fig. 99. Jointing for Turning. 

countersunk so that they will occupy a smaller radius 
than the turned surfaces. Or, small dogs or staples 



124 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

are driven in, two in each end. In these cases the 
prong and point centres of the lathe enter directly into 
the wood of the pattern. But in large heavy work 
done in soft wood, these centres become enlarged so 
much that another method of centring and holding is 
employed. Metal centre plates are substituted, one 
for the prong, and one for the dead centre. These are 

Fig. 100. Centre Plates. 

of two forms, one shown in Fig. 100, like a broad staple, 
acting therefore both as staple and centre plate, the 
other being fastened with screws into both halves of 
the pattern, Fig. 101. When jointed work is turned 






Fig. 101. Centre Plates. 

upon a face chuck, sufficient security for the two parts 
is obtained by running screws into both halves of the 
pattern, 



PREFACE TO GLOSSARY. 



I do not claim that this glossary, is exhaustive, either 
in respect to number of terms, or completeness of 
definitions. My idea here is to give brief explanations 
only of the leading terms employed in pattern shop 
and foundry, in order that the apprentice and student 
may be able to peruse the book intelligently, and to 
derive as much assistance as possible from it in the 
practice of daily duties. Many years elapse before 
a pattern-shop apprentice picks up the meaning of 
many of even the commonest terms employed in the 
foundry ; and the same is true of the moulder's appren- 
tice in regard to pattern-shop terms. The student in 
the schools is placed at a still greater disadvantage. 
I have also thought it well to prepare the glossary, 
because, though some of the terms recur many times 
in this book, or in " Practical Ironfounding," while 
their meaning is only given in one locality, it will be 
easier to look up a brief clefmtion in an alphabetical 
arrangement than to hunt the meaning up in the body 



125 



126 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

of these volumes. Some terms again are not explained 
in either volume, their definitions not coming within 
the range of the subjects treated, and when therefore 
to explain them would have necessitated digression; 
hence another advantage of a fairly comprehensive 
glossary. 



GLOSSARY. 



Air Belt, or wind chest. An annular chamber which sur- 
rounds the tuyere zone of a cupola, and receives the blast 
from the pipes, directing it through several tuyere open- 
ings among the fuel. The blast is thus rendered equable. 

Air Drying. The surface drying of cores by the air, due 
to delay in putting them into the stove. This is in- 
jurious, being productive of fragility. 

Air Furnace. A reverberatory furnace {q.v.). 

Air Vents. See Vents. 

All Mine Pig. Pig which is smelted entirely from ore, as 
distinguised from cinder pig (q.v.). 

Angle Board. A board of from 2' ,0" to 6' ,0" in length, pro- 
vided with shallow V shaped grooves running length- 
wise, and used for holding angles and hollows steadily 
while they are being planed to shape. A stop is fitted 
across near the end to receive the thrust of the strips 
which are being planed. 

Angles. Strips of wood, triangular in section, which are 
fitted into the corners of patterns for the purpose of 
strengthening their castings. 

Arc of Contact. That portion of the pitch circle of a wheel 
within the segment of which the contact of a single pair 
of teeth begins and ends. 

Arms. The radial strips which connect the rim of a wheel 
with its boss. 

127 



128 PPTNOTPLES OF PATTERN MARINO. 

Axe. Used by pattern-makers for roughing down wood 
which has to be turned. 

B 

Back Plate. A rough stout plate of cast iron bolted to the 
outsides, or backs, and against the edges of the bars in 
deep flasks, whose enclosed moulds are poured vertically. 
The back plate serves to sustain the sand against the 
great liquid pressure. 

Back Saw. A saw. whose blade is supported and rendered 
rigid by a back of iron or brass. Tenon saws and 
dove-tail saws are back saws. 

Barring. Poking away the coke from the immediate vicinity 
of the tuyere openings, by means of an iron bar inserted 
through the sight hole. 

Bars. See Stays, and Striking Bar. 

Base Circle. The fundamental circle upon which the des- 
cribing circle (q.v.) is rolled to develop the curves of 
cycloidal teeth (q.v.). The base circle corresponds with 
the pitch circle. 

Batten. In cases where a thin pattern has broad superfices 
and is not provided with flanges or ribs which would 
maintain it straight and true, it is customary to screw 
ribs on either the top or the bottom face; and after the 
pattern has been withdrawn, to fill up, or " stop off" 
the ribs with sand. Such ribs are termed battens. 

Bed Charge. The lowermost charge of coke, or that lying 
upon the bed of a cupola. The bed charge is necessarily 
deep, in order to raise the charges of metal above the 
height of the tuyere openings. 

Bedding in. The moulding of a pattern by embedding it in 
the sand in the precise position in which the casting is 
to be poured. 



GLOSSARY. 129 

Beeswaxing. The rubbing over of cast iron patterns with 
beeswax. The patterns are warmed first of all to a 
sufficient degree to melt the wax. Beeswaxing facili- 
tates their withdrawal from the sand, as shellac varnish 
does that of wooden patterns. 

Bellows. Used in foundries for blowing away parting sand 
and loose sand from moulds. 

Belly Core. A core enlarged in the central portion for the 
purpose of lightening out a boss, beyond that effected by 
the straight portion of the bore of the same. It is also 
enlarged, or " bellied," to prevent " drawing " of the 
casting in cooling. Called also chambered, and roach 
bellied core. 

Bench. The base or table upon which a workman performs 
his tasks. A pattern maker's bench is usually made of 
red deal, and provided with a single screw vice, and a 
draAver. A core maker's bench is of cast iron plate. 

Bench Hook. A block of wood furnished with a stop at each 
end, but set on opposite sides of a central web. The 
web is laid on the bench, and the lower stop presses 
against the edge of the bench, while the upper one takes 
the thrust of the wood which is being operated on by 
the saw. 

Bench Knife. A small piece of old knife blade which is used 
to prevent circular or irregularly shaped work from 
shifting upon the bench while being planed over. It is 
driven partly into the hinder portion of the wood, and 
partly into the bench. 

Bench Planes. The planes which a workman always keeps 
on his bench. They are the jack, trying, and smoothing 
planes only. 

Bevel. A tool consisting of a stock and a blade, the latter 
being capable of adjustment to any angle with the stock, 
and tightened with a screw. It is used similarly to a 

9— (5159) 



130 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

try square, but angles other than right angles are 
cheeked by means of it. 

Bevel Wheel. A cog wheel in which the teeth are disposed 
radially around the frustrum of a cone. These wheels 
are used to transmit power through shafts, the axes of 
which are not parallel, 

Bisect. To cut in halves. 

Bit. A boring tool which is operated in a stock or bi-ace. 
A full set of bits contains, centre bits, shell bits, nose 
bits, countersunks, rymers. 

Blackening, or blacking. A thin facing of almost pure car- 
bon, consisting of oak charcoal, or of plumbago, by which 
the fusible ingredients of the sand are protected from 
the action of the intense heat of the molten metal. 
Blacking is applied as a powder in most green sand 
moulds, but in moulds which are skin dried, and in dry 
sand, and loam moulds, and for cores, wet blacking or 
black wash, or core wash is used ; being common black- 
ing mixed with water thickened with dissolved clay. 
Wet blacking slightly hardens the surface of the mould. 

Blacking Bag. A muslin bag from which blackening is 
dusted over moulds. 

Blackleading. Brushing over the surfaces of wood or iron 
patterns with common blacklead imparts a glossiness 
which facilitates delivei-y from the sand. 

Blacking Mill. See Coal Mill. 

Black Sand. The sand which forms the floor of a foundry, 
and which by repeated usage, and the admixture of coal 
dust, has become black. 

Black Wash. See Blackening. 

Box Filling. The shovelling in, and ramming of all the sand 
enclosed in a flask, with the exception of that employed 
for facing. 

Boxing Up. The framing together of heavy patterns by the 



GLOSSARY. 131 

fastening together of thin boards into rectangular or 
other forms, as required. It is practised in order to 
economise timber, and to avoid the warping which is 
unavoidable where heavy timber is used. 

Blast. The current of atmospheric air delivered from the 
blower or fan, uuder pressure, through the blast pipe 
into the cupola. 

Blast Pipe. The pipe through which the air necessary for 
combustion passes from the fan or blower to the cupola. 

Blazed Pig. See Glazed Pig. 

Blower. A box fitted with revolving wafters or pistons, 
from which air is forced under pressure into the blast 
pipe leading to the cupola. 

Blow Holes. Holes occurring in castings, usually in groups, 
due to the entanglement of air and gas by the molten 
metal. Blow holes usually result from insufficient vent- 
ing, and from moisture. 

Blue Lines. These are used in drawings as centre lines, or 
dimension lines, so that they may not be confounded 
with actual working or structural lines, which are black. 

Body Core. A main or principal core, as distinguished from 
branch, and smaller cores. 

Body Flange. A pipe flange which is not shouldered into a 
recess in the usual fashion, but cut to fit over the body 
of a pattern, so that it may be slid to any position on 
the body to facilitate the alteration of the pattern to 
different lengths for jobbing work. 

Bore. (1) The size of a hole after it has been turned to 
finished sizes in a lathe or boring mill. The bored 
dimensions are always given on drawings, and the pat- 
tern maker has to make due allowance for boring in his 
core prints. The ordinary alowance is \" in the diameter 
for iron, \" for gun metal. (2) The diameter of the rough 
hole in a pipe. 



132 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Bottom Board. A board upon which a pattern or a section 
of a pattern is laid during ramming up. Also called a 
"joint board," because the joint of the mould is formed 
by its face ; and " turn-over board," because it is often 
turned over with the pattern after ramming. Its face 
may be either plain, or of an irregular form, according 
to the nature of the work. 

Bot Stick. A bar of iron pointed at one end and flattened 
at the other, used for opening and closing the tap hole 
of a cupola. 

Bow Saw. A thin narrow saw, from 8" to 18" long, strained 
between a frame, and used for cutting small curves. 
Also called " frame saw," and " turning saw." 

Bradawl. A boring tool which acts less by cutting than by 
pressure. The chisel like end, when thrust transversely 
to the direction of the grain, divides the fibres, and the 
body of the awl pushes aside the divided fibres as it is 
thrust downwards. The best bradawls are made smaller 
in diameter towards the handle in order to clear them- 
selves, and to lessen the labour of driving them in. 

Brad Punch. A short blunt-pointed bit of steel, used for 
driving the heads of brads and nails down below the 
surface of timber in order that they may be covered up 
and hidden. It is struck with a hammer. Two or 
three punches are required to suit brads of various 
sizes. 

Bricking Up. Building up the skeleton of a loam mould by 
means of bricks, cemented together with loam, and made 
to break joint. 

Bricks. Used as a backing for the loam in loam moulds, 

Bull Nose Plane. A single iron plane in which the cut- 
ting edge acts close to the front end of the stock, — 
used for planing into corners. The stock is made in 
metal, and the plane does not exceed 4" or 5" in length. 



GLOSSARY. 133 

Buckling. The curving and twisting of timber, caused by the 
drying up of the moisture present in the timber cells. 

Building Up. The construction of patterns in a number of 
independent pieces, the joints of which overlap. A vast 
deal of work is thus built up, the joints being glued, and 
pegged, or nailed. 

Burning On. Or casting on. The union of iron to iron while 
in a semi-fused condition. It is a practice sometimes 
resorted to when sectional portions of castings only are 
damaged, a new piece being burnt on by pouring molten 
metal over the fractured surface, until fusion takes place. 

Burnt Sand. Sand, the constituents of which have been 
partially fused and converted into oxides by the action 
of molten metal. The sand which forms the face of the 
mould invariably becomes burnt. 

C. 

Caliper. A tool used for gauging diameters of work where 
an end or sectional measurement cannot be taken, hence 
termed " outside " calipers ; also for measuring internal 
diameters, and then called " inside " calipers. 

Camber. Signifies the curving of certain types of castings 
in cooling, being due to want of symmetry in their sec- 
tional forms, by reason of which one portion cools off 
more rapidly than the other, causing distortion of figure 
in the longitudinal direction. 

Carrier. A casting which is attached to the arm of a wheel 
moulding machine, and to which the tooth block (q.v.) is 
attached. 

Casting. A piece of metal work obtained by pouring the 
metal while molten into a suitable matrix. 

Casting On. See Burning On. 

Casting Upright. Pouring work on end, adopted for castings 
whose length exceeds by many times their width, the 



134 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

direction of greatest length being vertical. Such woi'k 
is cast in the foundry pit (q.v.). The object of casting 
on end is to secure the greatest soundness possible. 

Centre Plate. A metal plate used for fastening the halves 
of a circular pattern together while it is being turned 
between lathe centres. 

Centre Square. Or Radius finder. An instrument used for 
finding the centre of a regular curve, or circular disc. It 
consists essentially of a straight-edge at right angles 
with a line drawn through the centimes of two guide pins 
which are made to touch the periphery of the curved 
work. 

Chalk. The uses of chalk are various in the pattern shop. 
It is used to whiten drawing boards (q.v.), to whiten the 
opposite surfaces of timber which has to be jointed ; 
generally to rub over any irregular surface of wood or 
metal against which another piece has to be fitted ; to 
powder and mix with varnish to make a stopping for 
screw and nail holes (bomontague), and to rub on chalk 
lines (q.v.). 

Chalk Line. A thin line of whipcord or string used for the 
making of straight lines upon timber for sawing by. 
The chalk line is whitened with chalk throughout its 
length, and strained from end to end of the timber. It is 
then lifted in the centre and released, when the chalk 
is transferred to the timber. 

Chambered Core. See Belly Core. 

Chamfer. A bevelling of the edge of a piece of work. The 
edges of loam boards and of strickles are always 
chamfered, so that the actual striking edge is not more 
than T y or -§■" in thickness. The loam or sand is struck 
with more freedom, and has a smoother surface than 
would be the case if the striking edges were left 
square. 



GLOSSARY. 135 

Changing Hook. A crane hook which is double, and whose 
use consists in the transference of ladles of molten metal 
from one crane to another near it. 

Chaplet. May be either a chaplet nail for the support of a 
core, or an article which is a gauge for thickness only, 
in the latter case being double headed for interposition 
between two opposing faces whose proper distances 
asunder are preserved by the interposition of the 
chaplets. Spring chaplets are made of hoop iron bent 
round to form two parallel faces. 

Chaplet Block. A block of wood rammed in a mould to 
receive the spike of a chaplet nail, the block affording 
the requisite steadiness to the chaplet when in posi- 
tion. 

Chaplet Nails. Malleable iron nails having broad flat heads ; 
used for the support of cores, and as gauges for thick- 
nesses of metal. 

Charcoal. Is used for drying small moulds. Oak charcoal 
ground in a mill is employed for blackening moulds. 

Charcoal Blacking. Blackening made of ground oak char- 
coal, so named to distinguish it from plumbago, and 
patent blackings. 

Check. A short shoulder or " set off," cut on the edge of a 
strickle (q.v.), and which slides against the edge of a 
core plate (q.v.), or of a guide iron (q.v.), so controlling 
the movement of the strickle. 

Chill. A metallic body of any required definite outline, 
against which the iron is poured to produce a chilled 
casting. 

Chilled Casting. A casting whose surface is rendered hard 
and steely by pouring the metal into a metallic mould. 

Chuck, Chucking. A chuck is the carrier in wood or metal 
to which work is attached for insertion in the lathe. 
Such work is said to be chunked, and the process is 



136 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

called chucking. Pattern work is chucked either by 
making a frictional fit, suitable for light patterns only ; 
or by attachment with screws or other means. 

Cinder Bed. See Coke bed. 

Cinder Pig. An inferior grade of pig-iron obtained by smelt- 
ing inferior ores with a large proportion of tap cinder, 
which is essentially a ferrous silicate containing nearly 
all the phosphorus eliminated from the pig during the 
puddling process. The cinder pig is therefore largely 
phosphoric and correspondingly inferior. 

Cinders. Are used for venting moulds, either in a coke bed 
(q.v.), or between the joints of bricks in loam moulds, 
or in the midst of large masses of green sand. 

Clagg. Clagging signifies the sticking of sand to a pattern, 
so that the withdrawal of the pattern damages the mould. 
It is due to rough surfaces, varnish not thoroughly dried 
moulding in hot sand, want of taper, etc 

Clay. See Clay Wash. 

Clay Wash. A solution of clay in water, used as a cementing 
agent, being swabbed over the bars of flasks, and over 
lifters to assist the adhesion of the sand, and used as a 
cement for jointing cores. 

Clearance. The bottom clearance of wheel teeth is the differ- 
ence between their actual and their working depth, and 
the flank clearance the difference between the thickness 
of the teeth and the width of the tooth space. If there 
were no clearance the points and root spaces and flanks 
would be in fast contact with each other 

Coal Dust. Is mixed with facing sand to prevent chemical 
action from taking place between the metal and the 
constituents of the sand. The gases generated by the 
oxidal ion of the coal interpose a protective film between 
the motal and the particles of sand. 

Coal Mill. Or Coke mill, or Blacking mill. A machine used 



GLOSSARY. 137 

for grinding the coal, for mixing with, facing sand, and 
for making blackening. 

Cod. (1) A large green sand core forming the central portion 
of a mould. (2) Any mass of sand carried upon a plate. 

Cog. See Cog Wheel. 

Cog Wheel. A toothed wheel, that is, a wheel which trans- 
mits motion and power by means of short projections 
upon its periphery, these projections being called " cogs" 
or " teeth." Often, however, the term teeth is under- 
stood to signify those made of metal, and cogs those 
which are cut in wood for mortice wheels. 

Coke Bed. Or Cinder bed. A bed, or layer of cinder and 
clinker, laid to a depth of several inches underneath a 
core bed (q.v.). Its purpose is the providing of a re- 
ceptacle for the gases which escape during casting, the 
gases passing down through vent holes into the coke 
bed, and being led off through pipes to the surface of the 
ground. 

Coke Mill. See Coal Mill. 

Cold Shots. Small globular particles of metal which often 
form on the first splashing of metal into a mould, and 
which, not becoming re-amalgamated, become detached 
when cold, leaving minute pits or depressions on the 
castings. 

Cold Shuts. Produced by the imperfect amalgamation of 
metal which is poured too slowly, or too dead, into a 
mould. The thinner the casting therefore, the hotter, 
and the more rapidly should the metal be poured. 

Compass. A tool used for striking curves, and circles of 
moderate radii. The best compasses are those in which 
the quadrant, or wing, and tightening screw are com- 
bined with an adjusting screw at one end of the quad- 
rant. 

Compass Plane, A plane with either a single iron (q.v.) } 



138 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

or double iron (q.v.), of about 6" or 7" in length, the sole 
of which is cut lengthwise to an arc of a circle for the 
purpose of planing internal curves. An adjustable stop 
at the front end furnishes the means of adjustment for 
curves of different radii. 

Compass Saw. A narrow saw about 15" long, used for 
cutting sweeps, holes, and curved portions of work of 
moderate size. Cfalled also " table saw," " sweep saw," 
" turning saw." 

Contraction. All the ordinary metals employed in engineer- 
ing construction shrink or contract in cooling down 
from the molten condition. This is a most important 
fact, since the accuracy of cast work depends upon a 
precise knowledge of the amount of contraction which 
the metals and alloys, iron, gun metal, brass, lead, 
copper undergo when cast in moulds. This is allowed 
for by pattern makers, who use a contraction rule (q.v.) 
to enable them to give exact proportions to their work. 

Contraction Rule. A rule used by pattern makers only, in 
which the due allowance for the shrinkage of iron cast- 
ings is given. Hence a pattern made from a contraction 
rule, and. consequently above the standard length, will 
ensure that the casting made from it is of normal dimen- 
sions. Similar rules are made for brass castings. 

Cope. The uppermost flask of a series, or the uppermost 
part of a mould. Often termed " top," or " top part." 

Core. A body whose outline corresponds generally with 
that of the internal or hollow portion of a casting. 

Core Bar. A hollow bar, upon which cylindrical cores are 
swept up, affording rigidity, and a vent channel to the 
cores. Core bars are either rigid tubes, or collapsible 
structures. 

Core Bed. A bed prepared in the foundry floor for the recep- 
tion and arrangement of cores required for the making 



GLOSSARY. 139 

of a casting. The bod is formed by strickling a layer 
of sand over a coke bed (q.v.\ and venting down into 
the latter. 

Core Board. A board whose edge is profiled into the sec- 
tional form of the core which it is designed to strike. 
A core board may rest on trestles, or it may be a loam 
board (q v.), or it may be a strickle (q.v.). 

Core Box. The box or frame in which a core (q.v.) is made. 

Core Boy. A boy who makes the smaller and less intricate 
cores in a foundry, and who generally assists the core 
makers. 

Core Carriage. A long low carriage of cast-iron which re- 
ceives the cores as they are made, and on which they 
are ran into the drying stove. 

Coring Up. Placing the cores of a mould in position, and 
securing them properly. 

Core Irons. Rods of bar iron, straight or curved, which are 
rammed up in a core to impart rigidity thereto. In large 
cores, grids (q.v.) are employed for the same purpose. 

Core Plate. (1) A thin plate of cast-iron used in striking the 
cores of work which has irregularly shaped outlines, as 
in bend, or reducing pipes for example. Its outlines 
correspond roughly with those of the work to be built 
upon it, and one of its edges furnishes the necessary 
guide to the strickle (q.v.), which strikes the core out- 
lines, or the pattern outlines, as the case may be. Core 
plates are made in iron, in order that they may be placed 
in the stove for the drying of the loam. 
(2) A light plate of cast-iron, several of which when wedged 
at equidistant positions on a core bar, form a skeleton 
for the support of hay bands and loam in cores of large 
size. 

Core Print. See Print. 

Core Rope. See Vent Strings- 



140 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Core Sand. Is essentially a strong sand (q.v.), containing 
dung, and coal dust in various proportions. Its primary 
use is the making of cores, but it is also employed in 
moulds, or for portions of moulds. 

Core Stove. See Stove. 

Core Trestles. Cast-iron standards, whose top edges are pro- 
vided with \/ shaped notches, in which the turned ends 
of core bars are revolved when striking up cores. 

Core Wash. Wet blackening. See Blackening. 

Counter-sinking-. Is the enlarging of a hole to a conical 
form to receive the head of a screw. Performed with a 
rose, or countersunk bit. 

Crane Ladle. See Ladle. 

Cross. A strong cast-iron frame, in shape like a St. Andrew's 
cross X, which is suspended in the crane, and from 
which depend the slings used for lifting and turning 
over moulding boxes. 

Cross-cut Saw. A two-handed saw, whose teeth are formed 
like equilateral triangles, and which have the maximum 
amount of set (q.v.) given to saws. These saws are only 
used for cutting across the grain. Hand saws, having 
more than the usual amount of set, are often used in 
workshops for cross-cutting (q.v.). 

Cross-cutting. Sawing performed across the grain. Saws 
for cross-cutting require more set (q.v.) than those used 
for cutting with the grain, and the teeth take approxi- 
mately the form of an equilateral triangle. For cross- 
cutting very thick planking a special cross-cut saw (q.v.) 
is employed. 

Cross Section. See Section. 

Cupola. The tall, cylindrical furnace, lined with fire brick, 
in which cast-iron is melted for foundry use. It is 
sometimes hooded at the top, from whence the name is 
derived, 



GLOSSARY. ' 141 

Cycloidal Teeth. Teeth, whose flanks and faces are formed 
of cycloidal curves, that is curves which are generated 
by a point in the circumference of a circle which is made 
to roll upon a straight line, or upon another circle. 

D. 

Daubing. Lining or smearing over the interior of a cupola, 
ladle, or receiver, with clay or sand, by means of the 
hands. 

Dead Head. See Head Metal. 

Delivery. The manner of the withdrawal of a pattern from 
its mould, as a good, or a bad delivery. " Lift," and 
"draw" have the same meaning. 

Describing Circle. The generating, or rolling circle used for 
drawing the cycloidal teeth (q.v.) of wheels. Upon its size, 
relatively to the fundamental or pitch circle, depends the 
shape and curvature of the teeth. When wheels are 
made in sets, its diameter should never exceed the radius 
of the smallest wheel in tbe set. 

Devil. An open frame or cage in which coke or charcoal 
are burnt, and which is used for drying foundry moulds, 
the cage being usually suspended in the mould. 

Diameter Strip. A strip of wood by which a tooth block 
{q.v.) is set to its proper radius. The diameter strip 
may reach either from the root, or point of a tooth to the 
central pillar of the machine. 

Diamond Point. A turning tool which is flat on the face, 
and has two cutting edges inclined to one another, 
meeting at an acute angle on the axis of the tool. Used 
for turning the outsides and insides of work, and for 
cutting off or parting it into various sections. 

Dividers. Small compasses, which are furnished with a 
screw and wing nut, instead of the quadrant and set 
screw which are used in the larger instruments. They 



142 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

are employed where fine adjustment is necessary, and 
for circles of small radii. Also called " spring dividers," 
because they open automatically by means of a spring at 
the junction of the legs. 

Dog. See Staple. 

Dotted Lines. These, on drawings, signify that the portions 
thus represented are hidden from view by something in 
front or above. 

Double Iron. A plane iron (q.v.) in which the cutting in- 
strument is backed with a top iron. 

Dove-tail Saw. A back saw, used for the finest sawing. 

Dowell. A pin of wood or metal, used for the purpose of 
effecting a temporary connection only between pattern 
parts which have to be detached from one another in 
the process of moulding. 

Drag. The lowermost flask of a series. Often called the 
" bottom," or " bottom part." 

Draw. A casting is said to " draw " when the shrinkage 
of the metal causes depressions at the surface, or hollow 
open spaces in the interior. See also Delivery. 

Drawback. A section of a mould which, instead of being 
rammed in one with the main body, is formed on a 
separate plate, suitable joints separating it therefrom, 
for convenience of being drawn away for repairs and 
finishing. 

Drawback Plate. The plate of cast-iron which carries the 
drawback (q.v.) of a mould. 

Drawing. (1) The setting out of work on a board. (2) The 
lifting out of patterns from the sand in which they have 
been rammed. (3) Increasing the depth of a mould with- 
out altering that of the pattern, accomplished by lifting 
out the latter to a definite distance and ramming around 
it a second time. 

Drawing Baard. A board used for striking out work upon, 



GLOSSAliY. 143 

to full size, in the shop. Boards are made of pine, about 
an inch thick, and the joints are not glued, but clamped 
close together and held with battens. When the wood 
shrinks, it is clamped up still further and fresh screw 
holes bored. 

Draw Knife. A cutting tool, used for roughing down the 
edges of timber. It is furnished with a blade several 
inches in length, provided with a tang at each end, 
turned round and inserted in handles at right angles to 
the cutting edge. The handles are grasped, one in each 
hand, and the knife pulled or drawn towards the work- 
man. 

Drop Out. Signifies the falling out of a portion, or the whole 
of a sand mould, from its flask, at the time of turning 
over, being due to imperfect staying. 

Drop Print. See Pocket Print. 

Drying. The evaporation of the moisture from a mould, 
either in the drying stove, or by means of devils, or of 
red hot masses of metal. 

Drying Stove. See Stove. 

Dry Sand. Mixtures of sand which, after their perfect desic- 
cation in a drying stove, remain sufficiently firm and 
coherent for casting into. 

E. 

Elevation. An elevation view of a drawing is that in which 
the observer is supposed to be stationed at the side or 
end of the work represented on the drawing, and to 
see nothing beyond the particular side at which he is 
looking. Parts lying beyond and in the same pl?,,ne are, 
however, indicated by dotted lines. A view t?ken at 
the side is termed a " side elevation," one at the end, 
an " end elevation," while a view of a cut face is termed 
a " sectional elevation.'* 



144 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Epicycloid. The curve which is formed by a point in a 
circle that rolls outside of a fundamental or base circle. 

F. 

Face. The face of a tooth is that portion which lies between 
the pitch line and the point. The face of a wheel is 
the depth or width of the teeth. 

Face Plate. A plate of wood or metal, or a combination of 
both, which is used for chucking work, the diameter of 
which exceeds its thickness. Face plates are made of 
various sizes, from 3" to 6' , 0" in diameter. 

Facing. (1) A superficial area which is elevated above the 
main body of a casting, and which is planed or chipped 
to receive some attachment. Allowance has to be made 
for facing to the extent of from ■§-" to \" on iron, and 
from ¥ y to ^g" on brass. (2) The making the actual 
face of a mould, as distinguished from mere box filling 
(q.V.). 

Facing Sand. The sand which lies immediately against the 
face of a mould, being rammed first against the pattern. 
It is mixed with coal dust to prevent sand-burning from 
taking place. 

Fan. A box or casing, through which air is drawn by the 
rapid revolution of vanes, and delivered to the blast 
pipe of a cupola. 

Feeder Head. The body of molten metal which is utilized 
for the purpose of feeding (q.v.) a mould. 

Feeding. The supply of molten metal in small quantity to 
the heavier parts of a mould which has been recently 
poured, in order to compensate for the loss due to shrink- 
age. Sometimes termed " pumping." 

Feeding Rod. An iron rod of \" or ■§" diameter, used for 
keeping the hot metal in a mould in agitation for the 
purpose of feeding (q.v.). 



GLOSSARY. 145 

Ferrules. The brass bands which are driven over the ends 
of tool handles to prevent them from splitting by the 
driving in of the tang. They are made from gas tube, 
cut off either with a hack saw, or a file, or else in the 
lathe. 

Fettling 1 . Cutting off the runners, risers, heads, and fins, 
and cleaning the sand from castings immediately after 
they are removed from the mould. Chisels, hammers, 
files, and scratch brushes are used for the purpose. See 
also " Fettling drum." 

Fettling Drum. A closed revolving C3'linder, within which 
small castings are cleaned or fettled by mutual attrition. 
Variously termed rattler, rattle barrel, tumbler, rumble, 
nimbler. 

File. A cutting tool in which each tooth may be considered 
as a chisel. Files are used to a very limited extent in 
pattern shops. 

Fin. A thin film of metal produced by faulty jointing of a 
mould, or by the finning of a dry sand mould. The 
metal oozing into the joint forms a thin film standing out 
from the casting in the plane of the joint. 

Finger Bit. Or " hold down piece." A thin bit of wood cut 
to fit the space between the teeth on a, tooth block (q.v.\ 
and employed to prevent the sand from becoming lifted 
up and torn by the withdrawal of the block. 

Firmer Tools. The short ordinary chisels and gouges used 
by pattern makers and carpenters alike. The gouges 
are ground on the outside, and can be driven with the 
mallet with impunity. The chisels will also stand 
malleting. 

Flank. The flank of a tooth is that portion of the side which 
lies between the pitch line and the root. 

Flask. Or moulding box. The open frame, usually of cast- 
iron, in which a portion or the whole of a founders' 

10— (5159) 



146 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

mould is contained. A complete flask consists of drag, 
middle, and cope. 

Flat. A curve is said to be flat when it is struck with a 
large radius, the term having a relative signification 
only, having reference to the particular matter under 
discussion. 

Flow- off Gate. See Riser. 

Fork Chuck. Or Prong chuck. The narrow pointed chuck 
used for driving lathe work between centres. 

Formula. An association of letters and signs which signify 
quantities, and arithmetical operations. 

Foundation Plate. A thick plate of cast-iron, studded with 
jaggers (q.v.), and used as the basis of operations when 
building up loam moulds (q.v.). 

Founding. The casting of metals into moulds, as distin- 
guished from the working of malleable metals by forg- 
ing. 

Foundry Pit. Work of considerable depth when cast verti- 
cally is sunk into a deep pit in the foundry floor, in order 
to bring the pouring basin at a suitable height. Pits 
are either sand pits — mere holes dug in the sand — 
or they are permanently encased with cast-iron plates, 
rings, or bricks. 

Fretting - . The abrasion of the minute particles of material 
removed in the process of sharpening (q.v.). 

G. 

Gate. The vertical opening which leads from the pouring 
basin (q.v.) into the runner (q.v.). 

Gauge. A tool used for the marking of lines upon timber, 
which have to act as guides to the workman in planing 
and cutting to size, thickness, and shape. It consists of 
a stock or head, furnished with a tightening screw or a 
wedge, and a marker, formed of a bit of pointed steel 



GLOSSARY. 147 

driven into one end. The ordinary marking gauge is 
about 8" or 10" long, but for planing wide stuff a panel 
gauge, ranging from 16" to 24" long is used. 

Gearing. A generic name commonly applied to signify cog 
wheels in general; though, strictly speaking, gearing in- 
cludes much besides mere wheels, such as shafts, belting, 
bearings, etc., so that " toothed gearing " is the more 
correct term. 

Generating Circle. See Describing Circle. 

Gimlet. A small boring tool which has a screw at one end. 
Gimlets are made in sets of twelve, ranging frem ^" to 
fin diameter. Twist gimlets are stronger, but shell 
gimlets are preferred as boring cleaner holes, and being 
less liable to split the grain of the wood. 

Glass-paper. From Nos. 1 to 2, or 2f are the numbers of 
glass-paper most in request in pattern making. The 
flour paper is of no value for pattern work. Glass-paper 
should be used with caution in order that the shape and 
dimensions of work may be preserved intact. In the 
deep sides of work the glass-papering should be done 
across the grain, to rpmove the slight ridges left by the 
planes, the unsightly appearance of the scratches left by 
the glass being of no importance. Glass-paper rubbers 
(q.v.) should also be used where possible. 

Glass-paper Rubber. A piece of cork or wood which is used 
to afford a backing for glass-paper. Rubbers are flat 
when used for level surfaces, but for special purposes 
they are made to follow the contour of the work to be 
glass-papered. 

Glazed Pig. Or blazed pig. An inferior pig which is often 
produced when a blast furnace is first blown in. It is 
highly silicious. 

Glue. A preparation of animal tendon. The best glue comes 
from Russia. When viewed in mass and held up to the 



148 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

light it should be of a pale transparency, and free from 
specks. Grlue should be used sparingly in pattern work 
on account of its liability to work out in the damp sand, 
and to stick to, and tear the moulds. 

Glued Joint. The union of opposing faces or edges by the 
intervention of glue. The joints must be close, and the 
glue rubbed down to an extremely thin film. Watery 
glue must be avoided. 

Gouge. A tool employed for cutting concave surfaces, the sec- 
tion of the tool being curved correspondingly. " Paring " 
gouges are long, and ground upon their concave faces ; 
firmer gouges short, and ground upon their convex faces. 
Each type is made in "quick," "middle flat," and "flat" 
curvatures, to suit different sweeps. 

Gouge Slip. See Oil Slip. 

Green Sand. Mixtures of common moulding sand, which 
are comparatively friable, loose, and weak, and which 
therefore require the presence of moisture to render them 
sufficiently coherent to withstand the pressure of molten 
metal. 

Grid. A plate, or a skeleton-like frame of cast-iron, variously 
formed, and used to carry, or to stiffen a core, or a por- 
tion of a mould. 

grindstone. A revolving stone which may be of either 
natural or artificial manufacture. The stone revolves in 
a trough which holds water, and it is commonly driven 
by a belt. The best natural grindstones are those quarried 
on the south bank of the Tyne, and called Newcastle 
grindstones. The best artificial ones are made in Trance. 

Grinding. The process of abrasion of the bevelled portion of 
a cutting tool, effected on a grindstone {q.v.). Cutting 
tools are best ground with the stone running towards 
the workman, and sufficient water must be used to keep 
it always wet while in use. 



GLUSSAHY. 149 

Guide Iron. A strip of square bar iron, bent to any curve 

required, and used as a guide for strickling up cores and 

loam patterns. 
Guide Line. A line which is marked parallel with the edge 

of the full-sized drawing of a bend pipe, and used as the 

guide for bending the guide iron (q.v.). 
Gutters. Shallow channels cut in the lower joint faces of a 

mould. Their function is to collect the smaller vents 

which come from the pattern sides, and to discharge 

them outside the flask. 

H. 

Half Rip Saw. A saw 28" long, having four teeth to the 
inch. It is used for sawing down in the direction of the 
grain, and, with a trifle more set (q.v.), for cross-cutting 
(q.v.). 

Hammer. A pattern maker's hammer is usually furnished 
with a point longer and narrower than that of an ordi- 
nary carpenter's hammer, for convenience of putting in 
hollows. Both forms are, however, in use. 

Hand Ladle. See Ladle. 

Hand Saw. A saw 26" iu length, variously named according 
to the size of the teeth. Strictly speaking a hand saw 
has about five teeth to the inch ; but rip saws (q.v.) and 
half rip saws (q.v.) are sometimes called hand saws. 
See also panel saw. 

Hard Ramming. See Rammer. 

Hatching-up. Cutting and roughening up the surface of a 
portion of a mould with a trowel to assist the adhesion 
of new sand thereto. Usually done for mending-up 
purposes. 

Hay. See Hay Band. 

Hayband. Hay spun into bands is used for circular cores 
which are struck in loam upon hollow bars. The hay 



150 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MARINO. 

becomes a bond of union for the loam, and affords a 
suitable vent for the gases. 

Hay band Spinner. A light cross frame of wood, set re- 
volving upon a pivot. The loose hay being fed to the 
frame by the hands, its revolution twists or spins it 
into haybands. 

Head Metal. Or "head," or "sullage piece," or "dead head." 
A body of metal cast upon the upper end of castings 
which are wanted specially sound. The dross rises into 
and collects in the head, which is subsequently turned, 
or slotted, or sawn off. A head by virtue of its liquid 
pressure also helps to consolidate the metal below. 

Headstock. The fast head of a lathe, which carries the 
riggers for imparting the rotatory movement to the work. 

Hollow Plane. A single iron (q.v.) plane, the cutting edge of 
which forms in plan an internal arc of a circle. Used 
for planing circular parts of work. 

Hollows. Strips of wood which have in section two sides 
at a right angle, and the third hollowed out, or concave. 
Inserted in the angles of patterns to afford strength to 
the castings. 

Hone. See Oil Stone. 

Hornbeam. A hard stringy white wood, largely used for 
the cogs of mortice wheels. 

Horsedung. Used for mixing with strong sand, dry sand, 
and loam ; partly to consolidate, partly for purposes of 
venting, the hay in the dung by its carbonization 
rendering the dried mould porous. 

Hot Metal. Metal which is poured from the ladle im- 
mediately after being tapped from the cupola. Light 
thin castings are poured with hot metal. 

H Section Arms. Arms whose cross section is that indicated 
by the shape of the letter H. They have been in use 
chiefly since the introduction of wheel machines, their 



GLOSSARY. 151 

cores being made more readily than those of the T or 
+ shape. The forms corresponding with the uprights 
of the H are set in the plane of the wheel, and the cross- 
bar connects the flat arms together. 
Hypocycloid. The curve formed by a point in a circle rolling 
within a fundamental or base circle. 



Internal Gears. Gears in which the teeth are arranged 
within a circle, instead of on its periphery. In internal 
gears the pinion and ring revolve in the same direction. 

Involute Teeth. Wheel teeth, the curves of which are those 
formed by a point in a string unwinding from a base 
circle. 

Iron Plane. A plane in which the stock or body is made in 
iron, instead of in wood. Being more rigid, these planes 
produce more accurate results than the wooden ones, 
and remain unaffected by changes of temperature, and 
by the attrition of their faces, due to use, which in 
wooden planes tends to render them inaccurate. Iron 
planes are made in soft cast-iron ; those chiefly so made 
being trying, and smoothing, and rebate planes. Within 
the last few years vast numbers of iron planes of new 
designs have been introduced by the American tool 
manufacturers. 

J. 

Jacking Over. The act of removing the rough outside of 
boards with a jack plane (q.v.). 

Jack Plane. A plane 17" in length, used for taking off the 
rough outer grain of timber, reducing it approximately 
to thickness, and taking it out of winding. The iron, 
2|" wide, of a jack plane, is ground more curved or 
rounding than that in a trying, or of a smoothing plane. 



152 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Jaggers. Pyramidal or conical projections of metal standing 
up from the plates on which loam moulds are built np ; 
their function being the better retention of the body of 
loam. 

Joint. (1) A "joint" in a pattern is not necessarily under- 
stood to signify a line of union between the stuff of 
which it is composed, but has reference chiefly to the 
method of moulding. Speaking generally but not in- 
variably, joints in patterns coincide with the joints which 
the moulder has to make in the sand, in order to draw 
the pattern, and to clean and finish the mould. (2) The 
edge or face at which the separation of flasks and 
moulds is effected. These may be truly horizontal, or 
diagonal, or curved, according to circumstances. 

Joint Board. A bottom board (q.v.) which is blocked up, or 
otherwise cut to the outlines of the joints of a pattern, 
and used for the purpose of ramming the sand joints 
upon, without the necessity of shaping and sleeking 
them with trowels. 

Jointing Down. In a pattern of irregular outline, the 
moulder's joint will seldom be in one horizontal plane, 
but some portions will be lower than others. When 
the lower half of the pattern is rammed up, the moulder 
sleeks the sand-joint up and down, so that each part 
shall deliver freely. Where the line of jointure is low, 
he is said to joint that portion of the mould " down." 

Joint Plane. A plane 28'' in length with a double iron of 
2s" in width, used sometimes for making glue joints. 
Called also a jointer. 

K. 

Keyhole Saw. Or pad saw. A thin tapering saw about 
10" long, used for cutting sweeps and holes. It slides 
in a rectangular slot pierced through the centre of a 



GLOSSARY. 153 

wooden handle or pad ; it is held fast in any position 
by a couple of set screws tapped into the ferrule. 

L 

Ladle. A vessel from which molten metal is poured into a 
mould. " Hand " ladles are carried by one man, and 
are used for light work ; "double handled " ladles are 
cai'ried by two, three, or four men, according to capacity, 
and hold from one to four cwts. " Crane " ladles are of 
several types, and are used for loads up to ten or twelve 
cwts. ; for the heavy loads these ladles are provided with 
gear, hence called " geared ladles," without which they 
could not be operated. The iron ladles are lined with 
fire clay to prevent them from becoming burned by 
molten metal. 

Lagging. The building up of cylindrical patterns by laying 
longitudinal strips of wood on transverse end, and cross 
pieces of polygonal form. It is a common mode of 
building up patterns which are too large to be cut from 
the solid wood without the risk of shrinkage. 

Lathe. A piece of mechanism employed for the production 
of circular work. It consists essentially of bed, head- 
stock, poppet, and rest. A lathe of 5" or 6" centres is 
handiest for ordinary pattern work ; for the heavier 
work, one of 12" centres or thereabouts is necessary. 

Levelling. Making a bed of sand level with winding strips, 
straight-edges, and spirit level. 

Levelling Strips. Winding strips (q.v.). 

Lift. See Delivery. 

Liftering. When the bars of a flask are insufficient in 
quantity, or when local masses of sand require support, 
lifters (q.v.) are used to give support to the sand, hence 
the term. 

Lifters. Hooks of cast-iron roughly shaped like a letter S, 



154 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

and used for hanging from the top parts of moulding 
boxes to sustain the sand. Also termed S hooks. 

Lifting. The act of withdrawal of a pattern from its 
mould. 

Lifting Plate. A plate of iron screwed to a pattern, and 
having a hole tapped for the insertion of a lifting 
screw. 

Lifting Screw. A screw cut at one end of an iron rod, at 
the opposite end of which there is a loop or eye for lift- 
ing. The screw is thrust into a hole in the wood 
pattern, or into the tapped hole of a lifting plate. 

Lifting Strap. A strap of hoop iron, or thin bar iron, which 
is attached to the side of a deep pattern for the purpose 
of drawing it out of the sand. 

Lime. Used to indicate the coincidence of joint faces, and 
of the tops of cores. Being strewn on lower joint faces, 
and on the upper surfaces of cores, it indicates by its 
transference to the cope, closeness of joint. 

Line Bag. A muslin bag containing powdered lime, and 
from which it is sprinkled over moulds. 

Lining Out. Marking out centres and lines on work. 

Lining Up. Increasing the size or thickness of a pattern, 
by the attachment thereto of strips of wood, lead, or 
plaster. 

Loading. Or weighting. The laying of weights on the 
upper part of a mould in order to prevent it from 
becoming lifted by the liquid pressure of the molten 
metal. 

Loam. Mixtures of sand rendered plastic with water, and 
swept up by the edge of a board. After thorough 
diwing, moulds made in loam are adapted for casting 
the heaviest work into 

Loam Board. A board, the edge of which is profiled to the 
outline of the sectional form of the mould which it is 



GljObbAJBY. 155 

designed to strike. It is swept around a central bar, to 
which it is bolted by means of a strap or straps. 

Loam Bricks. Cakes of loam modelled like bricks of various 
sizes, and used in place of common bricks in the build- 
ing up of certain sections of loam moulds in which the 
shrinkage of parts might lead to fracture, if occurring 
against the common unyielding bricks. 

Loam Cake. A piece of dried loam having a flat face, and 
used as the face of some portion of a mould, being firmer 
than a face formed of green sand. 

Loam Mould. A mould in which loam (q. v.) is the material 
employed. 

Loam Pattern. A pattern similar to an ordinary pattern 
made in wood, the material only being different. Loam 
patterns are made for the bulkier classes of work, but 
chiefly or almost entirely for work which can be struck 
up either on a revolving bar, or by means of strickles. 
When irregular shaped attachments occur, they are 
made in wood and attached to the loam. 

Loam Plate. A plate or ring of cast-iron, made in open 
sand, and usually studded with prods (q. v.), or jaggers 
(q.v.), upon which the brick work of a loam mould (q.v.) 
is built. 

Loose Pieces. Portions of patterns made loose, or detachable 
from the main body, for convenience of moulding. They 
mostly occur at the sides, or on the top. 

Longitudinal Section. See Section. 

Long Toothed Gauge. A special gauge used for marking 
parallel lines around sweeps, and lines on different 
levels. 

Lug. A projecting ear, or roughly semicircular web of metal 
projecting from the side of a casting, and provided with 
a hole for the reception of a bolt or pin. 



156 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

M 

Mahogany. A moderately hard, close grained wood used 
for the finer patterns. Its value consists chiefly in its 
non-liability to warp when well seasoned, and its hard 
surface, which enables it to withstand rough foundry 
usage. The variety known as Bay wood is used more 
than the Honduras variety. 

Mallet. A wooden hammer used for driving heavy blows in 
cases where an iron hammer would bruise and split 
either the material or the handles of the tools. Ash and 
beech make the best mallets. 

Mending up. The necessary repairs done to a mould after it 
has become damaged by the rapping and the withdrawal 
of the pattern. 

Mending up Piece. Any strip, sweep, or block, which is used 
as a guide to obtain or to restore the damaged contour 
of a section of a sand mould. 

Middle. Or middle part. The central division of a mould- 
ing flask. 

Millwright. An engineer whose work is of a very general 
character. The name points to the origin of the trade 
which gave rise to a class of men skilled in mill work 
generally, in the fitting up of water wheels, pumping 
engines, shafting, and gearing. Millwrights were, and 
are still, to be found chiefly in country districts. 

Mitre Wheel. A bevel wheel in which the pitch line taken 
in the direction of the axis of the wheel is inclined at an 
angle of 45°. Mitre wheels, therefore, which gear to- 
gether must be of equal diameters, and their shafts must 
be situated at right angles. 

Mortice Wheel. A cog wheel which is provided with wooden 
teeth to secure the advantage of smooth and quiet work- 
ing. The teeth are driven into mortices cast in the 
wheel rim, hence the name. 



GLOSSARY. 157 

Mould. The matrix or reverse form of a given casting. 

Moulding'. Embraces in all its details the art of the pre- 
paration of the matrices in which metal is to be poured. 

Moulding Box. See Flask. 

Moulding Machine. Any machine by which the operations 
of moulding are facilitated. There are many kinds. 
But they may be broadly divided into two great classes, 
those used for gear wheels, and those used for all other 
classes of work. In these manual labour is minimised. 
In some machines the patterns are placed on plates 
which slide on vertical guides, the ramming being done 
by hand ; in others the ramming is performed automati- 
cally. Some are used specially for toothed wheels, in 
which, though the cost of moulding is increased, that of 
pattern work is diminished, and the castings are more 
accurate than as if made from patterns. 

Moulding Sand. Specially the sand which forms the floor of 
the foundry. Also termed black sand, floor sand, and 
old sand. 

Multiplier. Any constant number which it is convenient to 
use in mathematical formula. 

N 

Nailing. See Sprigging. 

Nails. Nails are used but sparingly in pattern work, be- 
cause owing to the necessity for providing for possible 
alterations, screws are preferable. Nails are used, how- 
ever, for hollows, facings, and thin strips generally. 
The French wire nails are better than the old cut nails. 
See also Sprigging. 



Oak. Used for he purpose of making cogs for mortice 
wheels. 



158 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Odontograph. A scale for striking out the teeth of wheels 
without previous calculation. There are several odonto- 
graphs, but Professor Willis's is the handiest and most 
widely used. 

Oil Slip. Or Gouge Slip. A narrow and thin strip of oil 
stone, having edges straight longitudinally, but curved 
in section, for adaptation to the inner curves of gouges, 
for sharpening {q.v.). They are used for inside and 
outside gouges : in the first named, for performing the 
actual duty of abrasion ; in the latter, for turning back 
the feather-edge. They are employed in various sizes, 
and are sometimes mounted in a stock in a similar 
fashion to an oil-stone. 

Oil-stone. Or Hone. A slaty stone used for the purpose of 
sharpening edge tools. There are numerous kinds of 
oil stones, as Arkansas, Turkey, Washita, Charnley 
Forest, Nova Scotia, Grecian. The Charnley Forest is 
the hone which can be depended on best, and has the 
merit of being cheap. Turkey is best of all, but is un- 
certain. An oil stone is mounted in a wooden case or 
stock, and provided with a cover to keep out dust and 
grit. 

Old Sand. The sand which forms the floor of a foundry, 
and which has been repeatedly in use. 

Open Joints. Joints in which the edges of stuff are brought 
near to one another, without actual contact being per- 
mitted to take place. They, may be from T y to £" apart. 
The joints are kept flush either by other portions of 
work which are built over them, or by means of tight 
fitting dowels. The reason of open joints is, that 
patterns swell in the sand and shrink during storage, 
and by leaving the joints free, the expansion and shrink- 
age are localized in the joints only, without altering the 
outer dimensions. 



GLOSSARY. 159 

Open Sand. A casting is made in open sand when the mould 
is not covered in with a top box or cope. Open sand 
castings are only suited for the roughest classes of 
work, such as foundry tools, etc. 



Tt. The relation of circumference to diameter, or of semi- 
circumference to radius. The number 3*14159. 

Panel Gauge. See Gauge. 

Panel Saw. A short saw 18" long, having seven teeth to the 
inch, intermediate therefore between a hand, or half rip 
saw, and a tenon saw. It is handy for cutting shoulders, 
tenons, half lap joints, and narrow faces generally. 

Paper Joint. A joint in frequent use in turned work, where 
the use of screws or nails is undesirable ; a layer of 
paper glued between the face plate and the work will 
when dry, hold securely. By lifting the work with a 
chisel the paper will split in two, and permit of the 
wood being separated without injury. 

Parallel Print. When a circular print is moulded on its 
side, that is with its longitudinal axis horizontal, it is 
parallel throughout its length, because in the direction 
of its lift it is able to deliver itself freely. 

Paring Tools. Long gouges and chisels used for cutting 
across deep and flat surfaces, for which the ordinary 
short joiners' tools are unsuitable. They are light in 
substance, and therefore not suitable for driving wi-th 
the mallet. The gouges are invariably ground on the 
inner or hollow side ; the chisels as ordinary chisels. 

Parting Sand. Burnt gand (q.v.\ or sand which has been 
artificially dried, and which being strewn over the 
joints of patterns and moulds prevents union of opposed 
sand surfaces from taking place, and permits of easy 
and clean separation of the joint faces of moulds. 



160 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Parting Tool. See Diamond Point. 

Pattern. A model into whose impression in sand, metal is 
poured to form a casting. 

Pegs. Soft wooden pins, used for securing glued superficial 
joints. They are split in order to have their grain 
straight, and are slightly tapered throughout their 
length, and pointed at the end to facilitate entry. 

Pincers. A tool used for the extraction of nails, wire, etc., 
and which depends for its value on the action of leverage. 
Hence pincers long in the handle, and flat on the face, 
are more economical of power than those which are short, 
and rounding on the face. 

Pitch. (1) The angle of a plane iron in its stock is termed 
its pitch; the more obtuse the angle the "higher" the 
pitch, the more acute, the " lower " the pitch. (2) The 
distance between the centres of contiguous wheel teeth 
measured on the pitch line. It is the same thing, of 
course, if the dimension be taken from edge to edge, 
either right hand or left hand. 

Pitch Circle. See Pitch Line. 

Pitch Diameter. The diameter of the circle upon which the 
pitch (q.v.) of a wheel is measured. 

Pitch Line. The line upon which the tooth centres of wheels 
and racks (see pitch) are divided out. In a rack the 
pitch line is straight, in a wheel it is a circle, and in 
each case the pitch line represents the actual working 
dimension from which velocity ratios are deduced. 

Pit. See Foundry Pit. 

Plan. In a plan view of a drawing, the eye of the observer 
is supposed to be set directly vertical over the drawing, 
and the illusions due to perspective are supposed not 
to exist. No portions of sides or edges are supposed to 
come into view, and the parts remote from the eye suffer 
no apparent diminution in size on that account. Parts 



GLOSSARY. 161 

lying underneath and actually hidden by upper surfaces 
are also supposed to be seen, being indicated by dotted 
lines. 

Plane. A tool used for reducing the surface of wood to a 
definite outline, either level or to some other shape 
required by the special character of the work. The 
cutting edge of a plane projects very slightly beyond 
^ the face of the stock, the amount of the projection 
regulates the thickness of the shaving, and the surface 
of the material becomes thereby in time the counterpart 
of the face of the plane. The plane consists essentially 
of the body or stock, the iron, and the wedge. 

Plane Iron. The cutting instrument in a plane (q.v.); and 
though termed an iron, it is invariably made either 
entirely of steel, or is steel-faced on the actual cutting 
edge. Plane irons vary in width, thickness, and shape ; 
each class of plane having its special iron, so that the 
irons of the various classes are not interchangeable. 
Irons are single, or double : in the latter case the lower 
iron is the cutting instrument, and the top iron is 
used for the purpose of stiffening it and assisting its 
action. Irons are held in place, and set, either with a 
wedge, or a screw. The angles of irons vary also, those 
for planing soft woods being set at a more acute angle, 
or at a lower pitch than those for the harder woods. 
Irons are commonly used with the ground face placed 
downwards, but in the case of iron planes (q.v.) usually 
in the reverse way. 

Plated Centre. A wheel centre is said to be plated when it 
is discoid in form instead of being made with open arms. 
Plated centres are employed for small wheels, but arms 
are used in the case of those of large dimensions. 

Plate Moulding. Moulding in which the pattern is rammed 
upon a plate, of which it forms an integral portion, the 

11— (5159) ,20 pp. 



162 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

face of the plate forming the joint of the mould. In 
most cases the plate forms a division between two por- 
tions of a pattern, the opposite sides of the plate forming 
the two joint faces. 

Pliers. A pincer-like tool used for holding pieces of wire 
or other material. Those having flat and rough jaws 
arc the only ones useful to the pattern maker. 

Plyer Set. The commonest form of tool employed for impart- 
ing the set (q.v.) to saws. It is a plate of steel with a 
lever handle, the edge of the plate being notched out at 
intervals to embrace the teeth of saws of various gauges. 
The teeth are pulled over alternately by means of the 
handle attached to the plate. The objection to the plyer 
set is that the amount of set cannot be gauged so accu- 
rately as when the setting hammer and block are made 
use of. 

Pocket Print. Or Drop Print. A form of print which is 
employed when the ordinary round print cannot be 
used for horizontal cores, the joint of the mould not 
coinciding with the centre of the print. The core is 
dropped into the print impression as into a pocket, and 
is stopped over. 

Point. The point of a tooth is that portion which corres- 
ponds with the largest diameter, lying outside, or 
bounding the termination of the face (q.v.). 

Poppet. The movable head of a lathe, which carries the 
dead centre upon which the work is pivoted and 
revolves. 

Pouring. Or Running. The emptying of the molten metal 
from the ladle into the pouring basin (q.v.) of a mould. 

Pouring Basin. The cup shaped depression formed on the 
cope for the reception of the metal from the ladle, and 
from which it passes directly into the gate (q.v.) or 
gates. 



GLOSSARY. 163 

Print. Or Core Print. An attachment to a pattern, whose 
impression sustains a core in its proper position. 

Prods. Rows of projections, conical and blunt pointed in 
form, cast on the plates upon which loam work is built, 
their function being the retention of the loam. 

Prong Chuck. See Fork Chuck. 

Projection. The representation of geometric figures in 
various positions, and in sections, by the carrying out of 
parallel lines from one view to another. The figures 
thus projected are not actual representations of objects, 
since the effect of perspective is eliminated ; but they 
are geometrically accurate, and represent the true rela- 
tions of lines and dimensions. All engineers' working 
drawings are constructed by the projection of lines. 

Pulling up. Damage inflicted on a mould by the withdrawal 
of a pattern. Thus a mould is said to be " pulled up " 
badly, or a pattern to have drawn or pulled badly, or 
well, as the case may be. 

Punch. See Brad Punch. 

Q. 
Quick. A curve is said to be quick when it is struck with 
a small radius. It has a relative signification only. 
See Plat. J 

P. 

Rack. A form of gearing used for the production of directly 
reciprocating motion. Hence the teeth are arranged in 
a straight line. 

Radius. The semi-diameter of a circle. 

Radius Bar. A rod of wood attached to a sweep, which is 
used for moulding either a ring, or an arc of a circle. 
One end of the bar is attached to the sweep, and through 
a hole near the end opposite a pin passes, and furnishes 
a fixed centre around which the sweep is revolved. 



164 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Radius Finder. See Centre Square. 

Rammer. An instrument of iron ; being a " pegging " 
rammer when narrow, and a "flat" rammer when broad. 
A rod attached to the rammer forms a handle by which 
it is driven with considerable force against the sand for 
the purpose of consolidating the sand around a pattern. 
Varying degrees of force are employed in ramming 
different kinds of moulds, or different portions of the 
same mould; hence the terms "hard" ramming, and 
"soft" ramming are relative. Speaking generally, how- 
ever, too hard ramming is productive of scabs, and soft 
ramming of lumpy, and swollen, or strained castings, due 
to the yielding of the sand before the weight of the 
metal. 

Rapping. The loosening of a pattern while yet in the sand, 
and during the act of withdrawal, in order to detach the 
sand therefrom without causing damage to the mould. 

Rapping Bar. A bar of iron pointed at one end for insertion 
into a rapping hole, or rapping plate. 

Rapping Hole. A hole bored in a pattern, or in a plate let 
into the pattern for the insertion of the rapping bar. 

Rapping Plate. An iron plate screwed to a pattern, and 
containing a hole for the insertion of the rapping bar. 

Rebate. An angular corner or recess cut in a piece of timber. 
Its two sides form a right angle with each other. A 
rebate plane (q.v.) is employed in its production. 

Rebate Plane. A single iron (q.v.) plane, whose cutting edge 
is a straight line, and in which the edges of the iron are 
not enclosed, but are level with the side faces of the 
wood stock, in order that the cutting capacity shall be 
coincident with the edges of the plane ; a condition 
essential to the planing out of rebates Rebate planes 
are either square, or skew mouthed ; in the former instance 
the face edge of the iron stands at right angles with the 



GLOSSARY. 165 

sides of the stock, in the latter it is set at an angle. The 
latter cnts the grain more freely and sweetly than the 
former. 

Receiver. A brick or clay lined vessel employed instead of 
a ladle for some very heavy castings. The metal is tapped 
from the cupola, and runs down into the receiver, where 
it accumulates, and finally is tapped from the receiver 
into the mould. 

Red Lines. These are used on drawings as centre and as 
dimension lines, to distinguish them from actual work- 
ing lines. 

Reducing Bend. A bend which fulfils the same conditions 
as a reducing pipe (q.v.). 

Reducing Pipe. A pipe in which the diameter diminishes. 
Used to make a connection between pipes of different 
diameters. 

Rest. The support upon which a turning tool is laid when 
operating upon work in the lathe. On account of its 
shape it is often called a T rest, to distinguish from 
rests of other kinds. 

Reverberatory Furnace. A furnace used for the melting of 
metal by the heat of incandescent gases. The fuel is 
burnt on a hearth separated from that upon which 
the metal lies, and the hot gases therefrom pass over a 
bridge, and are deflected upon the metal. Reverberatory 
furnaces are used for the melting of iron when mixtures 
of special purity are desired. Also termed " air furnace," 
because, unlike blast furnaces, it receives only natural 
draught. 

Reverse Mould. A dummy mould upon which a portion of 
an actual mould, into which metal is to be poured, 
is rammed. 

Ribs. The vertical arms of a wheel. Sometimes called 
feathers, and cross arms. 



166 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Riddle. A sieve of large mesh, or from T 3 g" to f". Any- 
thing below T y mesh is termed a sieve. 

Rim. The circular portion of a wheel to which the teeth 
are attached. 

Rip Saw. A saw 28" long, having 2| teeth to the inch. It 
is therefore a very coarse saw, and only suitable for 
ripping, or sawing down thick timber with. It contains 
a very slight amount of set (q.v.), and is therefore un- 
suitable for cross-cutting (q.v.). 

Riser. Or Flow-off Gate. A passage which occupies a vertical 
position in relation to a mould, similarly to a runner, 
but into which the metal rises as the mould fills, and 
flowing away, relieves the cope of much strain. 

Rod ding. When bars or stays are absent from flasks, or 
when they are insufficient in amount, rods of bar iron 
are placed in the unstayed portion to carry, or to give 
support to the sand, hence the term. 

Roughing Down. Turning off the angularities left from the 
hatchet, in lathe work. A turning gouge of large size 
is employed for the purpose. 

Rolling Circle. See Describing Circle. 

Root. The base of a wheel tooth, or that portion which 
springs from the rim. In calculating the load on a tooth 
the distance across the root corresponds with the depth 
of a loaded cantilever. 

Round Nose. A turning tool, flat on the face, and having 
its cutting edge curved in plan. Used for working the 
hollows in turned work. 

Round Plane. A single iron (q.v.) plane, whose cutting edge 
in plan is that of an external or convex arc of a circle. 
It is used for planing hollows {q.v.), and hollow curves 
generally. 

Router. Or Old Woman's Tooth. A plane tised for levelling 
over the bottoms of recesses. It is capable of adjust- 



GLOSSARY. 167 

ment for different depths. Useful for sinking in rapping 

and lifting plates. 
Rubber. See Glass-paper Rubber. 
Rubbing Board. A flat piece of board, used for levelling and 

roughening over the surface of a mould previous to the 

final sleeking. 
Runner. The horizontal channel which leads from the gate 

(q.v.) directly into the mould. 
Running. See Pouring. 

Running Down. The melting down of a charge of iron. 
Rusting. Rusting of iron patterns is resorted to in order to 

impart a surface to the metal sufficiently rough to enable 

the varnish to adhere to it, without which precaution 

the varnish would peel off from polished iron surfaces. 

Rusting is performed with a solution of sal-ammoniac. 

S. 

Sal Ammoniac. Chloride of ammonia, NH 4 C1 ; used in 
solution for rusting iron patterns previous to beeswax- 
ing (q.v.). 

Sand Burning. A casting is said to be sand burnt when it 
has become roughened by the oxidation of the sand at 
the face of the mould, coal dust (q.v.) being either not 
present, or insufficient in amount. 

Sand Sifter. A riddle or sieve of large size and of rect- 
angular outline, to which a rocking to-and-fro motion is 
imparted automatically. 

Saw Kerf. A slit or groove cut with a saw through a 
portion only of the thickness of a piece of stuff, not 
sufficient to sever it, but enough to permit of its 
being bent. By cutting a number of such kerfs side by 
side, moderately thick fillets and hollows can be bent 
round curved portions of work. 



168 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Scab. An excrescence upon a casting, usually formed by 
the disturbance and washing away of a section of the 
sand at the surfaces of a mould. 

Scabbing. The formation of a scab (q.v.) or scabs upon a 
casting. 

Scale. A tool used for the proportional measurement of 
drawings. The main divisions on the scale are fractional 
parts of a foot ; thus an inch on the scale is tV th of the 
foot. Each main division is sub-divided again into 
twelve equal parts to represent the inch division. 
Scales are " open divided," that is the scale of one kind 
occupies the whole of one side of the instrument ; or 
" fully divided," in which case several scales occupy 
one side. 

Screw-driver. A tool which is employed for turning in 
screws by the action of leverage. Screw-drivers should 
not be rcunding at the point, but as straight as possible 
to enable them to bite the slit in the screw head most 
effectually. 

Screwing Down. The securing of the parts of moulding 
boxes by screw bolts ; distinguished from cottaring and 
from loading. 

Scurf. See Sullage. 

Section. In drawings, a view of an object which is repre- 
sented as cut through in some definite plane, the cut 
face being presented to the eye. Sections are variously 
denominated, as " transverse," or " cross section," 
" longitudinal section," according as the view is taken 
at right angles to, or along the axis. A " sectional plan " 
indicates a section taken in a plane parallel with the 
horizon. 

Segments. Applied in pattern work to short circular sweeps 
or triangular shaped pieces used for building up (q.v.) 
circular patterns, 



GLOSSARY. 169 

Set. The set of a saw is the alternate bending of the teeth 
to one side and the other. It is done either with a 
plyer set (q.v.), or with a set block (q.v.), or with a 
punch, or a patent set. Its amount varies with the 
nature of the work which the saw has to perform, being 
largest in amount for cross-cutting, and least for sawing 
with the grain. 

Set Block. Set blocks vary in form, but the aim which 
underlies them all is the imparting to each individual 
tooth a uniform and measurable amount of set (q.v.). A 
bevel or chamfer is given to the edge of the set block, 
or the saw itself is laid on the block at a definite angle, 
and the teeth are punched one by one with a setting 
hammer or with a set punch. 

Set Punch. A steel punch which is used for imparting set 
(q.v.) to saw teeth. One form is held and adjusted over 
the saw tooth by hand, another is confined loosely in a 
hole in the centre of a set block, an india rubber spring 
in the centre giving it the necessary rebound after 
every stroke to enable it to clear the saw teeth. 

Set Square. A square used for checking the accuracy of 
interior angles. Its shape is that of a triangle, two 
edges being invariably at right angles, the third form- 
ing some definite angle with the others, 45°, or 30° and 
60° being the commonest Set squares for shop use are 
made of wood, the largest being framed together in three 
strips, and tongued. 

Setting Out. Signifies the marking out of work. 

Sharpening. The production of a keen cutting edge upon a 
tool by a process of abrasion on the surface of a hone or 
oil stone (q.v.). The actual abrasion takes place only on 
the ground facet, the flat face of the chisel or plane 
being pressed on the stone only for the purpose of turn- 
ing back the wire edge. 

11a— (5159) 



170 PRINCIPLE 8 OF PATTERN MAKING. 

S Hooks. See Lifters. 

Shooting. The planing of edges of stuff on a shooting board 
(q.v.). 

Shooting Board. A couple of pieces of board, the upper one 
being about 3" narrower than the other, and screwed 
together with two edges corresponding. A stop is pro- 
vided at one end, and this stop receives the thrust of the 
timber while being planed. To shoot, the plane is laid 
upon its right side on the lowermost board of the two, 
and the edge of the cutting iron very nearly coincides 
with the edge of the upper board. The stuff being held 
in the left hand on the board, the right hand guides the 
plane by which the edge is shot. 

Short Grain. Timber grain in which the longitudinal 
bundles of fibres are short in relation to their width, 
and consequently liable to fracture. Short grain must 
be avoided as much as possible, but where necessitated 
it must be stayed by independent means. 

Shrinkage, or contraction. The diminution in size of a cast- 
ing during the process of cooling down. 

Shrouding. The flanging around the teeth of a wheel. Shroud- 
ing reaches either to the pitch line, or to the point. 

Side Tool. A turning tool, flat on the face, but having its 
cutting edge ground at an angle with the edge of the 
tool. A tool ground on the right hand is termed a right 
hand side tool, if ground on the left it is termed a left 
hand tool. The former is used for boring cylindrical 
work, and the latter for turning the outside of a boss or 
cylinder when material situated without it prevents the 
use of a squarely ground chisel. 

Sieve. See Riddle. 

Sight Hole. A hole in the back of a tuyere pipe, or in an 
air belt, through which the operation of melting can be 
watched. It is closed with a disc of glass or of mica. 



GLOSSARY. 171 

Single Iron. A plane iron (q.v.) which consists of the cut- 
ting iron only. All rounds and hollows and rebate 
planes are made with single irons ; but the jack, trying, 
and smoothing planes with double irons (q.v.). 
Skewers. Or Wires. Short lengths of wire from ^" to ■§-" 
in diameter, used for the purpose of temporarily attaching 
loose pieces (q.v.) to patterns. The skewers are not 
drawn out until after the sand has been rammed round 
in sufficient quantity, in order to prevent the risk of 
disturbance of the loose pieces in the ramming up 
process. 

Skimmer. A long rod of flat bar iron which is held across 
the mouth of a ladle at the time of pouring, to prevent 
the scum upon the surface of the metal from entering 
the pouring basin. 

Skimming. The baying back of the scum from the surface of 
metal which is being poured from a ladle into the mould. 

Skimming Chamber. A circular or globular chamber be- 
tween Ihe in-gate and runner of a mould, by which & 
rotary motion being imparted to the molten metal, that 
which is most dense and sound passes on into the mould, 
the lighter and more porous remaining at the centre, or 
coming up into a riser above. 

Skin. The surface of a casting, as a " rough " skin, a 
" smooth," or " clean " skin. 

Skin Drying. The drying of the surface of a mould made in 
green sand, to render it slightly harder and firmer than 
it would be in its natural state. 

Slaking. Sleeking (q.v.). 

Sleeking. Smoothing and finishing over the surface of a 
mould with trowel, or sleeking tool. Also pronounced 
slicking, or slaking. 

Slicking. See Sleeking. 

Slings. Loops formed at the ends of rods of bar iron depend- 



PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

ing from a cross beam, in which the swivels of moulding 
boxes are laid for turning over. 

Slip. See Oil Slip. 

Smoothing Plane. A plane about 8" long, used for smoothing 
or finishing surfaces where appearance is more essen- 
tial than strict accuracy. Hence its work is intermedi- 
ate between that of the jack plane and the trying plane. 
The irons of smoothing planes range from If" to 2|'' wide, 
and are sharpened slightly more rounding than those 
of trying planes. 

Soft Ramming. See Rammer. 

Spalting. The breaking or splitting out of timber at the 
end grain. It is the evil to be specially guarded against 
when end grain is being planed, to prevent which it is 
customary to chamfer the edge where the plane termin- 
ates its cut. 

Spigot. The beaded end of a pipe, which, entering loosely 
into a socket upon a pipe adjacent, is rendered water- 
tight by caulking. 

S-Pipe. A double bend turned in opposite directions to 
each other, and having the outline roughly of a letter S. 

Splitting Plate. A plate of cast or wrought iron, used to 
divide some portion of a casting, usually a boss, or a 
wheel rim, in two. 

Spokeshave. A tool whose action is that of a plane, but 
whose stock is narrower to render it suitable for the 
working of curves. Two or three spokeshaves of dif- 
ferent widths are required by the pattern maker, in 
order to afford sufficient range of curves. 

Spongy. A casting is said to be spongy, or honeycombed, 
when minute blow holes are interspersed throughout its 
substance. Honeycombing is the result of imperfect 
venting, so that the gas and air cannot escape quick 
enough before the in-flowing metal. 



GLOSSARY. 173 

Spray. An assemblage of small runners diverging from 
a main runner. Used for the lighter class of cast- 
ings. 

Sprigging. Nailing the narrower, weaker sections of sand 
in a mould, in order to afford the support necessary 
to enable them to withstand the pressure of the liquid 
metal. The nails are thrust in with the fingers, and 
the sand consolidated around them. 

Spring Chaplet. See Chaplet. 

Spring Dividers. See Dividers. 

Spur Wheel. A cog wheel (q.v.) in which the teeth are dis- 
posed radially around the periphery, and in lines parallel 
with the axis. These wheels are used to transmit 
power through shafts, whose axes are parallel with each 
other. 

Stake. A tapering bar of wood or of iron driven into the 
sand of the foundry floor, as a guide to the setting of 
the cope in bedded-in work. 

Staking. The setting of the cope of a bedded-in mould by 
means of stakes. 

Staple. Or Dog. A metal clamp, in shape like the three 
sides of a rectangle, the two free ends being pointed for 
driving into adjoining timbers in order to. pull them up 
close for jointing, or for other purposes. 

Standard Pattern. A pattern which is in frequent use, and 
which is supposed to undergo no alterations. Standard 
patterns are made for all repetition work, and much 
pains is bestowed upon their construction, both with a 
view to accuracy of dimensions, to the lessening of 
fitter's work upon their castings, to their stability, and 
freedom from liability to warp and shrink, and to their 
durability. 

Standard Rule. An ordinary rule for common measurement. 
as distinguished from a contraction rule (q.v.). 



174 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Stays, or Bars. The ribs which span a moulding box, and 
by which mainly the sand is retained in place. 

Stopping-off. The alteration of the length or outlines of a 
mould effected without altering that of the pattern from 
which it is made, by introducing a templet or stopping- 
off piece into the mould, and ramming the sand against 
it, as though it were a pattern of the actual shape 
required. 

Stopping Over. The filling up of the space over a core 
placed in a pocket print (q.v.), with sand. 

Stopping-off Piece. Any piece used as a templet or guide in 
the process of stopping off. 

Stove. A brick-lined chamber in which cores and moulds 
are dried with coke fires. The stove is usually built 
outside the foundry wall, but opens into the foundry, 
the opening being closed with a sheet iron door. The 
fire is made either in the floor, or at the sides. Also 
termed " core stove " and " drying stove." 

Straight-edge. A thin strip of wood whose edges are 
planed as truly linear as possible, and used as the 
means of checking the linear accuracy of lines and 
surfaces. Straight-edges are best made in mahogany, 
if under about three feet in length, and in yellow pine 
if over that size. 

Straining. The slight distortion, bulging, or lifting of weak 
or insufficiently loaded flasks by reason of liquid pres- 
sure of molten metal at the time of pouring. 

S+rap. The bar or bracket of wrought iron to which a loam 
board (q.v.) is bolted. It fits over the striking bar (q.v.) 
and is pinched at any required height with a set screw. 
See also Lifting Strap. 

Strickle. Any templet whose edge is profiled to strike up 
cores, patterns, or moulds in core sand, loam, or green 
sand. Core boards (q.v.) and loam boards (q.v.) are, 



GLOSSARY. 17* 

however, not usually termed strickles ; but the term 
may be takeu to include anything not embraced under 
these two heads. 

Striking Out. Signifies the marking out of work. 

Striking Bar. A square bar of iron slipped vertically into, 
and pivoting in a suitable socket, sunk in the foundry 
floor. The bar is an abutment for a loam board, which 
is swept radially round it. 

Striking Board. May be either a core board (q.v.) or a loam 
board (q.v.). 

Stripping Plate. A plate (see Plate Moulding) through 
which a pattern is withdrawn, the hole in the plate 
being of the same contour as that of the pattern. There 
is thus no tearing down of the sand, since the plate 
strips it from the pattern during withdrawal. No 
taper is required in the pattern either. 

Strong Sand. Sand which will bear drying or partial dry- 
ing without becoming pulverised. Strong sand is stiff 
and clayey by comparison with weak sand, and usually 
contains horse dung. 

Sullage, or Scurf. The inferior open metal, scum, dross, 
dirt, and foreign matters generally, which collect on the 
surface of molten metal. 

Sullage Piece. See Head Metal. 

Swab, or Water Brush. A soft brush which is dipped in 
water, and used for the purpose of swabbing (q.v.). 

Swabbing. The moistening of the joint edges, or of weak 
and broken sections of a mould, with a swab (q. v.\ to 
ensure the coherence of the sand. 

Sweep. A piece of wood having a curved edge, or edges. 

Sweep Sav. See Compass Saw. 



176 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

T. 

Tap, Relates to the discharge of metal from a foundry 
cupola. To cause the metal to flow is termed " tap- 
ping," or " tapping out." If the clay in the tapping 
hole is difficult to pierce with the bot stick, the tap is 
said to be " hard." 

Taper. The thinning down of a pattern from the top to the 
bottom, in order to relieve it from the pressure of sand 
as it is gradually withdrawn. 

Tap Hole. The hole in a cupola through which the metal 
flows into the ladle. 

Test Bar. A bar of cast-iron which is subjected to a cross 
breaking test for the strength of foundry metal. 

Thicknessing. Striking the coat of loam on a loam pattern, 
which represents the thickness of metal in the actual 
casting. 

Tooth Block. The prepared block, usually containing two 
teeth, used for moulding toothed wheels in a wheel- 
moulding machine. 

Trestles. See Core Trestles. 

Trying Plane. A bench plane 22" in. length, with an iron 
of 2\" in width, is used for truing up the surfaces of 
timber after the preliminary reduction with the jack 
plane (q.v.). 

Tucking Under. Thrusting and compressing sand under- 
neath overhanging portions of patterns in the operations 
of moulding, chiefly in bedding in. 

Turning Over. The method of moulding by ramming the 
sand directly against that face of a mould, which, 
though uppermost during ramming, is to be lowermost 
at the time of casting. After ramming, the flask with 
the contained pattern is turned over into its final 
position This is, therefore, the reverse of bedding-in 



GLOSSARY. 177 

Turn-over Board. See Bottom Board. 

Tuyere. The short pipe, nozzle, or orifice through which 
the blast enters a cupola. 

V. 

Venting. The act or process of forming the vents (q.v.) in a 

mould. 
Vent Eopes. See Vent Strings. 
Vents. Minute passages and chambers by which the sand 

of a mould is honeycombed, and through which the 

air and the gases generated by casting find escape. 
Vent Strings. Or Vent Ropes, or Core Ropes. Ropes or 

strings used for venting crooked cores, from which rigid 

rods or wires could not be withdrawn without tearing 

the cores. 
Vent Wire. The wire or rod used in the formation of vents 

(q.v.). 

W. 

Waster. An imperfect or damaged casting which cannot be 
used for the purpose for which it was designed. Blow 
holes, scabs, draws, cold shuts, etc., are among the 
principal causes of waster castings. 

Water Bosh. A tank of water in the foundry from which 
supplies are drawn for core making and moulding 
purposes. 

Water Brush. A swab (q.v.). 

Weak Sand. Sand which will not bear dr} T ing without 
becoming pulverised. It may, however, be skin dried 
It is loose and open, and contains no dung. 

Weighting. Loading (q.v.). 

Wet Blacking. See Blackening. 

Wind Chest. An air belt (q.v.). 



178 PRINCIPLES OF PATTERN MAKING. 

Winding Strips. Strips of wood or iron, of equal and 
parallel width, used for levelling, the coincidence in 
regard to parallelism of the uppermost edges being esti- 
mated by the eye cast over them. Called also ""level- 
ling strips." 

Wires. See Skewers. 



INDEX. 



Angles, 50. 
Angle Wheels, 92. 
Arms of Wheels, 71. 

Bevel Wheels, 27, 77, 85, 86. 

Boring Tools. 15. 

Bottom Board, 110. 

Boxing up, 36. 

Brackets, 22, 23. 

Brass, Shrinkage of, 17. 

Building up, 6, 42, 48, 68, 69, 70. 

Centre Plates, 124. 
Chisels, 12. 
Chucking, 121. 
Chucks, Intermediate, 120. 
Column, Ornamental, 108. 
Compasses, 17. 
Constructional Joints, 35. 
Core Boxes, 43, 59, 83, 85, 89. 
Corners in Patterns, 49. 
Cylinder, 52. 

Dividers, 17. 
Double Shrinkage, 7. 
Dovetails, 50. 

Engine Cylinder, 52. 
Essentials of Pattern Construc- 
tion, 2. 

Face Plates, 119, 120, 122, 123. 

Gauges, 18. 

Gear Wheels, Machine Moulded, 

79. 
Gear Wheels, Patterns, 67. 



Gouges, 12. 

Grindstones for Paring Gouges 
13. 

Half Lap Joints, 43. 
Helical Wheels, 88, 90, 91. 
Hollows and Angles in Patterns. 

50. 
Hones, 16. 

Intermediate Chucks, 120. 
Iron, Shrinkage of, 17. 

Jointed Patterns, How to Turn, 

123. 
Jointing of Patterns, 21. 

Lagging up, 40. 
Loam Boards, 97, 98. 

„ Patterns, 100, 101, 103, 104. 
Loose Lagging, 41. 

Measurement, Tools for, 16. 

Name Plates, 111, 112. 

Open Joints, 35. 

Paring Gouges, 13. 

Pattern Construction, Essentials 

of, 2. 
Pattern Making and Moulding, 

connection between, 1, 
Pattern Making, Tools used for, 9. 
Pattern of Spur Wheel, 70. 

„ Turning, 113. 
Patterns, an Engine Cylinder, 52. 



179 



180 



INDEX. 



Patterns, Building up, 68, 69, 70. 

„ Jointing of, 21, 35. 

„ Loam, 100, 101, 103, 104. 

„ Ornamental Column, 
108. 

„ Thickness of in Loam, 
104, 105. 

., Wood for, 5. 
Pegging Segments, 69. 
Planes, 10. 
Plated Wheels, 94. 
Plates, Centre, 124. 
Pulley, 28. 

Revolving Work, 96. 

Saws, 9. 

Scales, 17. 

Scraping a Surface, 116. 

Segments, 48, 68, 69. 

„ Pegging of, 69. 

Sheave Wheel, 26. 
Shooting Joints, 69. 
Shrinkage, Double, 7. 

„ " of Metals. 17. 
Side Tool, 118. 
Spur Wheel Pattern, 170. 
Squares, 18. 
Steam Chest, 31. 
Steel, Shrinkage of, 17. 
Strickles, 95, 103. 
Strickling, 104, 107. 
Striking Boards, 87, 97, 9S. 



Sweeps, 95. 
Swept Work, 106. 

Thickness in Loam Patterns, 104 

105. 
Tools, 9. 

„ for Measurement, 16. 
Tooth Blocks, 79, 86, 90, 92, 93. 
Trammels, 17. 
Trolly Wheel, 25. 
Turning Chisel, Method of Use, 
115, 117. 
„ Gouge, Method of Use, 

114. 
„ In Cup Chuck, 118. 
„ Jointed Patterns, 123. 
„ On Pace Plates, 119. 
Tools, 14. 

Wheel Arms, 71, 83, 85, 88. 

„ Cored up mould of, 84 
Wheels, Angle, 92. 

„ Helical, 88, 90. 

„ Plated, 94. 
Worm, 26, 93. 
Wheel Teeth, 73. 

„ „ Designing of, 75. 

„ „ Glass-papering of, 

75. 

„ „ Taper of, 74. 

Willis's Odontograph, 75. 
Wood for Patterns, 5. 
Worm Wheels, 26, 93. 



Printed by Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd., Bath, England 
V— (5159) 



A LIST OF BOOKS 

PUBLISHED BY 

Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons, Ltd. 

(Incorporating WHITTAKER & CO.) 
1 AMEN CORNER, LONDON, E.C. 4 



A complete Catalogue giving full details of the following 
books will be sent post free on application. 



ALL PRICES ARE NET. 



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Aeronautical Engineering. A. Klemin. {In preparation.) 
Alternating Current Machinery. Papers on the Design 

of. C. C. Hawkins, S. P. Smith, and S. Neville . 
Alternating-Current Work. W. Perren Maycock 
Arithmetic of Electrical Engineering. Whittaker's 
Arithmetic of Alternating Currents. E. H. Crapper . 
Architectural Hygiene, or Sanitary Science as 

applied to Buildings. B. F. and H. P. Fletcher 
Armature Construction. H. M. Hobart and A. G. Ellis 
Art and Craft of Cabinet Making. D. Denning 
Astronomy, for General Readers. G. F. Chambers . 
Atlantic Ferry: its Ships, Men and Working, The. 

A. G. Maginnis. ....... 

Baud6t Printing Telegraphic System. H. W. Penary 
Calculus for Engineering Students. J. Stoney 
Carpentry and Joinery: a Practical* Handbook for 

Craftsmen and Students. B. F. and H. P. Fletcher 7 6 
Central Station Electricity Supply. • A. Gay and C. H. 

Yeaman . . . . .' . . . 12 6 

Colour in Woven Design: a Treatise on Textile 

Colouring, R. Beaumont , . . . . 21 
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Commercial and Technical Terms in the English and 

Spanish Languages. R. D. Monteverde . 
Conversion of Heat into Work. Sir W. Anderson 
Concrete Steel Buildings: being a Continuation of the 

Treatise on Concrete-Steel. W. N. Twelvetrees . 
Continuous-Current Dynamo Design, Elementary 

Principles of. H. M. Hobart . 

Reinforced Concrete. W. N. Twelvetrees. (In 

preparation.) 
Continuous Current Motors and Control Apparatus. 

W. Perren Maycock ...... 

Design of Alternating Current Machinery. J. R. 

Barr and R. D. Archibald ..... 

Direct Current Electrical Engineering. J. R. Barr 
Dissections, Illustrated. C. G. Brodie 
Drawing and Designing. C. G. Leland 
Dynamo: its Theory, Design and Manufacture, The. 

C. C. Hawkins and F. Wallis. In two vols. . Each 
Electric Light Fitting: a Treatise on Wiring For 

Lighting, Heating, &c. S. C. Batstone . 
Electro-Platers' Handbook. G. E. Bonney 
Electrical Instrument Making for Amateurs. S. R 

Bottone ....... 

Electric Bells and all about Them. S. R. Bottone 
Electric Traction. A. T. Dover .... 

Electrical Engineers Pocket Book. (New Edition 

preparing.) 
Electric Motors and Control Systems. A. T. Dover 

Electric Motors — Continuous, Polyphase and Single- 
Phase Motors. H. M. Hobart . 

Electric Lighting and Power Distribution. Vol. I 

W. Perren Maycock ...... 

Electric Lighting and Power Distribution. Vol. II. 

W. Perren Maycock ..... 

Electric Mining Machinery. S. F. Walker. (In pre 

paration.) 
Electric Wiring, Fittings, Switches and Lamps. 

Perren Maycock ...... 

Electric Wiring Diagrams. W. Perren Maycock 
Electric Wiring Tables. W. Perren Maycock 

Electric Circuit Theory and Calculations. 

Perren Maycock ....... 

Electrical Instruments in Theory and Practice. 

Murdoch and Oschwald . . 



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Electric Traction. J. H. Rider . 

Electric Light Cables. S. A. Russell . 

Electro Motors: how made and how used. S. R. 

Bottone. (New edition preparing.) 
Elementary Geology. A. J. Jukes-Browne . 
Elementary Telegraphy. H. W. Penary 
Elementary Aeronautics, or the Science and Practice 

of Aerial Machines. A. P. Thurston. New Edition 

preparing.) 
Elementary Graphic Statics. J. T. Wight . 

Engineer Draughtsmen's Work: Hints to Beginners in 
Drawing Offices ...... 

Engineering Workshop Exercises. E. Pull 

Engineers' and Erectors' Pocket Dictionary: English 
German, Dutch. W. H. Steenbeek 

English for Technical Students. F. F. Potter . 

Experimental Mathematics. G. R. Vine 

Book I, with Answers ..... 
,, II, with Answers ..... 

Explosives Industry, Rise and Progress of the British 

Field Work and Instruments. A. T. Walmisley 

First Book of Electricity and Magnetism. W. Perren 
Maycock . 

Galvanic Batteries: their Theory, Construction and 
Use. S. R. Bottone 

Gas, Oil and Petrol Engines: including Suction Gas 
Plant and Humphrey Pumps. A. Garrard 

Gas and Oil Engine Operation. J. Okill. (In pre- 
paration.) 

Gas Supply, in Principles and Practice: a Guide for 
the Gas Fitter, Gas Engineer and Gas Consumer 
W. H. Y. Webber 

German Grammar for Science Students. W. A 
Osborne ....... 

Handrailing for Geometrical Staircases. W. A 
Scott ........ 

High-Speed Internal Combustion Engines. A. W. Judge 

Historical Papers on Modern Explosives. G. W 
MacDonald ....... 

How to Manage the Dynamo. S. R. Bottone 

Hydraulic Motors and Turbines. G. R. Bodmer 

Induction Coils. G. E. Bonney 

Inspection of Railway Material. G. R. Bodmer 



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H. W. Turner and 



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Insulation of Electric Machines 
H. M. Hobart ... 

Land Surveying and Levelling. A. T. Walmisley 
Leather Work. C. G. Leland .... 
Lektric Lighting Connections. W. Perren Maycock 
Lens Work for Amateurs. H. Orford 

Lightning Conductors and Lightning Guards. Sir O 
Lodge . . . . . . . . . 

Logarithms for Beginners ..... 

Magneto and Electric Ignition. W. Hibbert 

Management of Accumulators. Sir D. Salomons . 

Manual Instruction — Woodwork. Barter, S. 
,, ,, Drawing ,, 

Manufacture of Explosives. 2 Vols. O. Guttmann 

Mechanical Tables, showing the Diameters and Cir 
cumferences of Iron Bars, etc. J. Foden . 

Mechanical Engineers' Pocket Book. Whittaker's 

Mechanics' and Draughtsmen's Pocket Book. W. E 

Dommett ..... 

Metal Turning. J. Horner 
Metal Work — Repousse. C. G. Leland 

Metric and British Systems of Weights and Measures 

F. M. Perkin 2 6 

Mineralogy: the Characters of Minerals, their 

Classification and Description. F. H. Hatch . 6 

Mining Mathematics (Preliminary). G. W. Stringfellow 1 6 

Modern Illuminants and Illuminating Engineering. 

Dow and Gaster. {New Edition preparing.) 
Modern Practice of Coal Mining. Kerr and Burns. 

Parts ........ each 

Modern Optical Instruments. H. Orford . 

Modern Milling. E. Pull ...... 

Moving Loads on Railway under Bridges. H. Bamford 
Optics of Photography and Photographic Lenses. 

J. T. Taylor 4 

Pipes and Tubes: their Construction and Jointing. 

P. R. Bjorling .40 

Plant World: its Past, Present and Future, The. G. 

Massee . . . . . . . • .30 

Polyphase Currents. A. Still . . . . .76 

Power Wiring Diagrams. A. T. Dover . . .76 

Practical Exercises in Heat, Light and Sound. J. R. 

Ashworth . . . . . . .26 



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Practical Electric Light Fitting. F. C. Allsop 
Practical Exercises in Magnetism and Electricity. 

J. R. Ashworth .... 
Practical Sheet and Plate Metal Work. E. A. Atkins 
Practical Ironfounding. J. Horner 
Practical Education. C. G. Leland . 

Practical Testing of Electrical Machines. L. Oulton 
and N. J. Wilson 

Practical Telephone Handbook and Guide to the 

Telephonic Exchange. J. Poole . 
Practical Advice for Marine Engineers. C W. Roberts 
Practical Design of Reinforced Concrete Beams and 
Columns. W. N. Twelvetrees .... 

Principles of Fitting. J. Horner 
Principles of Pattern -Making „ 
Quantities and Quantity Taking. W. E. Davis . 
Radio-Telegraphist's Guide and Log Book. W. H 
Marchant ..... 

Radium and all about it. S. R. Bottone . 
Railway Technical Vocabulary. L. Serraillier . 
Researches in Plant Physiology. W. R. G. Atkins 
Roses and Rose Growing. Kingsley, R. G. 
Roses, New ...... 

Russian Weights and Measures, Tables of. Redvers 
Elder ....... 

Sanitary Fittings and Plumbing. G. L. Sutcliffe . 
Simplified Methods of Calculating Reinforced Con- 
crete Beams. W. N. Twelvetrees . 
Slide Rule. A. L. Higgins .... 

Slide Rule. C. N. Pickworth .... 

Small Book on Electic Motors, A. C. C. and A. C. W. 
Perren Maycock. ..... 

Spanish Idioms with their English Equivalents. R. 
D. Monteverde ..... 

Specifications for Building Works and How to Write 
Them. F. R. Farrow ...... 

Steel Works Analysis. J. O. Arnold and F. Ibbotson 
Storage Battery Practice. R. Rankin. {In preparation.) 
Structural Iron and Steel. W. N. Twelvetrees. 
Submarines, Torpedoes and Mines. W. E. Dommett 
Surveying and Surveying Instruments. G. A. ' 
Middleton 

Tables for Measuring and Manuring Land. J. Cullver 



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Teacher's Handbook of Manual Training: Metal Work. 

J. S. Miller 4 

Telegraphy: an Exposition of the Telegraph System 

of the British Post Office. T. E. Herbert . 10 6 

Text Book of Botany. Part I — The Anatomy of 

Flowering Plants. M. Yates . . . .20 

Transformers for Single and Multiphase Currents. 

G. Kapp 12 6 

Treatise on Manures. A. B. Griffiths . . .76 

Trigonometry, Practical. H. Adams . . . .30 

Ventilation of Electrical Machinery. W. H. F. 

Murdoch . . . . . . .36 

Ventilation, Pumping, and Haulage, The Mathematics 

of. F. Birks 3 6 

Wireless Telegraphy and Hertzian Waves. S. R. 

Bottone 3 

Wireless Telegraphy: a Practical Handwork for 

Operators and Students. W. H. Marchant . .60 

Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony. W. J. White . 4 

Woodcarving. C. G. Leland . . . . .50 



Catalogue of Scientific and Technical Books pott free. 



London: Sir IsaacPitman& Sons, Ltd., 1 Amen Corner,E.C4 



